1
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Merondun J, Marques CI, Andrade P, Meshcheryagina S, Galván I, Afonso S, Alves JM, Araújo PM, Bachurin G, Balacco J, Bán M, Fedrigo O, Formenti G, Fossøy F, Fülöp A, Golovatin M, Granja S, Hewson C, Honza M, Howe K, Larson G, Marton A, Moskát C, Mountcastle J, Procházka P, Red’kin Y, Sims Y, Šulc M, Tracey A, Wood JMD, Jarvis ED, Hauber ME, Carneiro M, Wolf JBW. Evolution and genetic architecture of sex-limited polymorphism in cuckoos. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadl5255. [PMID: 38657058 PMCID: PMC11042743 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adl5255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Sex-limited polymorphism has evolved in many species including our own. Yet, we lack a detailed understanding of the underlying genetic variation and evolutionary processes at work. The brood parasitic common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) is a prime example of female-limited color polymorphism, where adult males are monochromatic gray and females exhibit either gray or rufous plumage. This polymorphism has been hypothesized to be governed by negative frequency-dependent selection whereby the rarer female morph is protected against harassment by males or from mobbing by parasitized host species. Here, we show that female plumage dichromatism maps to the female-restricted genome. We further demonstrate that, consistent with balancing selection, ancestry of the rufous phenotype is shared with the likewise female dichromatic sister species, the oriental cuckoo (Cuculus optatus). This study shows that sex-specific polymorphism in trait variation can be resolved by genetic variation residing on a sex-limited chromosome and be maintained across species boundaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Merondun
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
- Department of Ornithology, Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Seewiesen, Germany
| | - Cristiana I. Marques
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Pedro Andrade
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Swetlana Meshcheryagina
- Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology, Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Ismael Galván
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sandra Afonso
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Joel M. Alves
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EH, UK
- Palaeogenomics and Bio-Archaeology Research Network, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
| | - Pedro M. Araújo
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, MARE–Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre/ARNET–Aquatic Research Network, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Jennifer Balacco
- The Vertebrate Genome Lab, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Miklós Bán
- HUN-REN-UD Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Olivier Fedrigo
- The Vertebrate Genome Lab, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Giulio Formenti
- The Vertebrate Genome Lab, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Frode Fossøy
- Centre for Biodiversity Genetics, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Attila Fülöp
- HUN-REN-UD Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, Hungarian Department of Biology and Ecology, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- STAR-UBB Institute of Advanced Studies in Science and Technology, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Mikhail Golovatin
- Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology, Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Sofia Granja
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
- Palaeogenomics and Bio-Archaeology Research Network, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
| | | | - Marcel Honza
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kerstin Howe
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Greger Larson
- Palaeogenomics and Bio-Archaeology Research Network, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
| | - Attila Marton
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Csaba Moskát
- Hungarian Natural History Museum, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Petr Procházka
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Ying Sims
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Michal Šulc
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Alan Tracey
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | | | - Erich D. Jarvis
- The Vertebrate Genome Lab, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Mark E. Hauber
- Advanced Science Research Center and Program in Psychology, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Miguel Carneiro
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Jochen B. W. Wolf
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, LMU Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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2
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Layh S, Nagarajan-Radha V, Lemos B, Dowling DK. Y chromosome-linked variation affects locomotor activity in male Drosophila melanogaster and is robust to differences in thermal environment. Heredity (Edinb) 2023; 130:312-319. [PMID: 36914794 PMCID: PMC10163223 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-023-00604-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Although containing genes important for sex determination, genetic variation within the Y chromosome was traditionally predicted to contribute little to the expression of sexually dimorphic traits. This prediction was shaped by the assumption that the chromosome harbours few protein-coding genes, and that capacity for Y-linked variation to shape adaptation would be hindered by the chromosome's lack of recombination and holandric inheritance. Consequently, most studies exploring the genotypic contributions to sexually dimorphic traits have focused on the autosomes and X chromosome. Yet, several studies have now demonstrated that the Y chromosome harbours variation affecting male fitness, moderating the expression of hundreds of genes across the nuclear genome. Furthermore, emerging results have shown that expression of this Y-linked variation may be sensitive to environmental heterogeneity, leading to the prediction that Y-mediated gene-by-environment interactions will shape the expression of sexually dimorphic phenotypes. We tested this prediction, investigating whether genetic variation across six distinct Y chromosome haplotypes affects the expression of locomotor activity, at each of two temperatures (20 and 28 °C) in male fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Locomotor activity is a sexually dimorphic trait in this species, previously demonstrated to be under intralocus sexual conflict. We demonstrate Y haplotype effects on male locomotor activity, but the rank order and magnitude of these effects were unaltered by differences in temperature. Our study contributes to a growing number of studies demonstrating Y-linked effects moderating expression of traits evolving under sexually antagonistic selection, suggesting a role for the Y chromosome in shaping outcomes of sexual conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Layh
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Venkatesh Nagarajan-Radha
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Behaviour Ecology and Evolution Lab, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Bernardo Lemos
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Damian K Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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3
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Meisel RP. Ecology and the evolution of sex chromosomes. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1601-1618. [PMID: 35950939 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sex chromosomes are common features of animal genomes, often carrying a sex determination gene responsible for initiating the development of sexually dimorphic traits. The specific chromosome that serves as the sex chromosome differs across taxa as a result of fusions between sex chromosomes and autosomes, along with sex chromosome turnover-autosomes becoming sex chromosomes and sex chromosomes 'reverting' back to autosomes. In addition, the types of genes on sex chromosomes frequently differ from the autosomes, and genes on sex chromosomes often evolve faster than autosomal genes. Sex-specific selection pressures, such as sexual antagonism and sexual selection, are hypothesized to be responsible for sex chromosome turnovers, the unique gene content of sex chromosomes and the accelerated evolutionary rates of genes on sex chromosomes. Sex-specific selection has pronounced effects on sex chromosomes because their sex-biased inheritance can tilt the balance of selection in favour of one sex. Despite the general consensus that sex-specific selection affects sex chromosome evolution, most population genetic models are agnostic as to the specific sources of these sex-specific selection pressures, and many of the details about the effects of sex-specific selection remain unresolved. Here, I review the evidence that ecological factors, including variable selection across heterogeneous environments and conflicts between sexual and natural selection, can be important determinants of sex-specific selection pressures that shape sex chromosome evolution. I also explain how studying the ecology of sex chromosome evolution can help us understand important and unresolved aspects of both sex chromosome evolution and sex-specific selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P Meisel
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
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4
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Archer CR, Paniw M, Vega-Trejo R, Sepil I. A sex skew in life-history research: the problem of missing males. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221117. [PMID: 35892214 PMCID: PMC9332873 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Life-history strategies are diverse. While understanding this diversity is a fundamental aim of evolutionary biology and biodemography, life-history data for some traits-in particular, age-dependent reproductive investment-are biased towards females. While other authors have highlighted this sex skew, the general scale of this bias has not been quantified and its impact on our understanding of evolutionary ecology has not been discussed. This review summarizes why the sexes can evolve different life-history strategies. The scale of the sex skew is then discussed and its magnitude compared between taxonomic groups, laboratory and field studies, and through time. We discuss the consequences of this sex skew for evolutionary and ecological research. In particular, this sex bias means that we cannot test some core evolutionary theory. Additionally, this skew could obscure or drive trends in data and hinder our ability to develop effective conservation strategies. We finally highlight some ways through which this skew could be addressed to help us better understand broad patterns in life-history strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Ruth Archer
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Maria Paniw
- Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville 41001, Spain,Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Irem Sepil
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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5
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Cīrulis A, Hansson B, Abbott JK. Sex-limited chromosomes and non-reproductive traits. BMC Biol 2022; 20:156. [PMID: 35794589 PMCID: PMC9261002 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01357-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex chromosomes are typically viewed as having originated from a pair of autosomes, and differentiated as the sex-limited chromosome (e.g. Y) has degenerated by losing most genes through cessation of recombination. While often thought that degenerated sex-limited chromosomes primarily affect traits involved in sex determination and sex cell production, accumulating evidence suggests they also influence traits not sex-limited or directly involved in reproduction. Here, we provide an overview of the effects of sex-limited chromosomes on non-reproductive traits in XY, ZW or UV sex determination systems, and discuss evolutionary processes maintaining variation at sex-limited chromosomes and molecular mechanisms affecting non-reproductive traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aivars Cīrulis
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Bengt Hansson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
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6
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Shenoi VN, Brengdahl MI, Grace JL, Eriksson B, Rydén P, Friberg U. A genome-wide test for paternal indirect genetic effects on lifespan in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20212707. [PMID: 35538781 PMCID: PMC9091837 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposing sires to various environmental manipulations has demonstrated that paternal effects can be non-trivial also in species where male investment in offspring is almost exclusively limited to sperm. Whether paternal effects also have a genetic component (i.e. paternal indirect genetic effects (PIGEs)) in such species is however largely unknown, primarily because of methodological difficulties separating indirect from direct effects of genes. PIGEs may nevertheless be important since they have the capacity to contribute to evolutionary change. Here we use Drosophila genetics to construct a breeding design that allows testing nearly complete haploid genomes (more than 99%) for PIGEs. Using this technique, we estimate the variance in male lifespan due to PIGEs among four populations and compare this to the total paternal genetic variance (the sum of paternal indirect and direct genetic effects). Our results indicate that a substantial part of the total paternal genetic variance results from PIGEs. A screen of 38 haploid genomes, randomly sampled from a single population, suggests that PIGEs also influence variation in lifespan within populations. Collectively, our results demonstrate that PIGEs may constitute an underappreciated source of phenotypic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jaime L. Grace
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL 60660, USA
| | - Björn Eriksson
- Unit of Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sundsvägen 14, Box 102, 230 53 Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Patrik Rydén
- Department of Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden,Computational Life Science Cluster (CLiC), Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Urban Friberg
- IFM Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
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7
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Nguyen A, Wang W, Chong E, Chatla K, Bachtrog D. Transposable element accumulation drives size differences among polymorphic Y Chromosomes in Drosophila. Genome Res 2022; 32:1074-1088. [PMID: 35501131 DOI: 10.1101/gr.275996.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Y Chromosomes of many species are gene poor and show low levels of nucleotide variation, yet often display high amounts of structural diversity. Dobzhansky cataloged several morphologically distinct Y Chromosomes in Drosophila pseudoobscura that differ in size and shape, but the molecular causes of their dramatic size differences are unclear. Here we use cytogenetics and long-read sequencing to study the sequence content of polymorphic Y Chromosomes in D. pseudoobscura We show that Y Chromosomes differ almost 2-fold in size, ranging from 30 to 60 Mb. Most of this size difference is caused by a handful of active transposable elements (TEs) that have recently expanded on the largest Y Chromosome, with different elements being responsible for Y expansion on differently sized D. pseudoobscura Y's. We show that Y Chromosomes differ in their heterochromatin enrichment, expression of Y-enriched TEs, and also influence expression of dozens of autosomal and X-linked genes. The same helitron element that showed the most drastic amplification on the largest Y in D. pseudoobscura independently amplified on a polymorphic large Y Chromosome in D. affinis, suggesting that some TEs are inherently more prone to become deregulated on Y Chromosomes.
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8
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Bronikowski AM, Meisel RP, Biga PR, Walters J, Mank JE, Larschan E, Wilkinson GS, Valenzuela N, Conard AM, de Magalhães JP, Duan J, Elias AE, Gamble T, Graze R, Gribble KE, Kreiling JA, Riddle NC. Sex-specific aging in animals: Perspective and future directions. Aging Cell 2022; 21:e13542. [PMID: 35072344 PMCID: PMC8844111 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in aging occur in many animal species, and they include sex differences in lifespan, in the onset and progression of age-associated decline, and in physiological and molecular markers of aging. Sex differences in aging vary greatly across the animal kingdom. For example, there are species with longer-lived females, species where males live longer, and species lacking sex differences in lifespan. The underlying causes of sex differences in aging remain mostly unknown. Currently, we do not understand the molecular drivers of sex differences in aging, or whether they are related to the accepted hallmarks or pillars of aging or linked to other well-characterized processes. In particular, understanding the role of sex-determination mechanisms and sex differences in aging is relatively understudied. Here, we take a comparative, interdisciplinary approach to explore various hypotheses about how sex differences in aging arise. We discuss genomic, morphological, and environmental differences between the sexes and how these relate to sex differences in aging. Finally, we present some suggestions for future research in this area and provide recommendations for promising experimental designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M. Bronikowski
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal BiologyIowa State UniversityAmesIowaUSA
| | - Richard P. Meisel
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexasUSA
| | - Peggy R. Biga
- Department of BiologyThe University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - James R. Walters
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyThe University of KansasLawrenceKansasUSA
| | - Judith E. Mank
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- Department of BioscienceUniversity of ExeterPenrynUK
| | - Erica Larschan
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and BiochemistryBrown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | | | - Nicole Valenzuela
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal BiologyIowa State UniversityAmesIowaUSA
| | - Ashley Mae Conard
- Department of Computer ScienceCenter for Computational and Molecular BiologyBrown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - João Pedro de Magalhães
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing GroupInstitute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | | | - Amy E. Elias
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and BiochemistryBrown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - Tony Gamble
- Department of Biological SciencesMarquette UniversityMilwaukeeWisconsinUSA
- Milwaukee Public MuseumMilwaukeeWisconsinUSA
- Bell Museum of Natural HistoryUniversity of MinnesotaSaint PaulMinnesotaUSA
| | - Rita M. Graze
- Department of Biological SciencesAuburn UniversityAuburnAlabamaUSA
| | - Kristin E. Gribble
- Josephine Bay Paul Center for Comparative Molecular Biology and EvolutionMarine Biological LaboratoryWoods HoleMassachusettsUSA
| | - Jill A. Kreiling
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and BiochemistryBrown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - Nicole C. Riddle
- Department of BiologyThe University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
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9
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Kaufmann P, Wolak ME, Husby A, Immonen E. Rapid evolution of sexual size dimorphism facilitated by Y-linked genetic variance. Nat Ecol Evol 2021; 5:1394-1402. [PMID: 34413504 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-021-01530-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Sexual dimorphism is ubiquitous in nature but its evolution is puzzling given that the mostly shared genome constrains independent evolution in the sexes. Sex differences should result from asymmetries between the sexes in selection or genetic variation but studies investigating both simultaneously are lacking. Here, we combine a quantitative genetic analysis of body size variation, partitioned into autosomal and sex chromosome contributions and ten generations of experimental evolution to dissect the evolution of sexual body size dimorphism in seed beetles (Callosobruchus maculatus) subjected to sexually antagonistic or sex-limited selection. Female additive genetic variance (VA) was primarily linked to autosomes, exhibiting a strong intersexual genetic correlation with males ([Formula: see text] = 0.926), while X- and Y-linked genes further contributed to the male VA and X-linked genes contributed to female dominance variance. Consistent with these estimates, sexual body size dimorphism did not evolve in response to female-limited selection but evolved by 30-50% under male-limited and sexually antagonistic selection. Remarkably, Y-linked variance alone could change dimorphism by 30%, despite the C. maculatus Y chromosome being small and heterochromatic. Our results demonstrate how the potential for sexual dimorphism to evolve depends on both its underlying genetic basis and the nature of sex-specific selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Kaufmann
- Evolutionary Biology, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Matthew E Wolak
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Arild Husby
- Evolutionary Biology, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elina Immonen
- Evolutionary Biology, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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10
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Peona V, Palacios-Gimenez OM, Blommaert J, Liu J, Haryoko T, Jønsson KA, Irestedt M, Zhou Q, Jern P, Suh A. The avian W chromosome is a refugium for endogenous retroviruses with likely effects on female-biased mutational load and genetic incompatibilities. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200186. [PMID: 34304594 PMCID: PMC8310711 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is a broadly observed pattern that the non-recombining regions of sex-limited chromosomes (Y and W) accumulate more repeats than the rest of the genome, even in species like birds with a low genome-wide repeat content. Here, we show that in birds with highly heteromorphic sex chromosomes, the W chromosome has a transposable element (TE) density of greater than 55% compared to the genome-wide density of less than 10%, and contains over half of all full-length (thus potentially active) endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) of the entire genome. Using RNA-seq and protein mass spectrometry data, we were able to detect signatures of female-specific ERV expression. We hypothesize that the avian W chromosome acts as a refugium for active ERVs, probably leading to female-biased mutational load that may influence female physiology similar to the 'toxic-Y' effect in Drosophila males. Furthermore, Haldane's rule predicts that the heterogametic sex has reduced fertility in hybrids. We propose that the excess of W-linked active ERVs over the rest of the genome may be an additional explanatory variable for Haldane's rule, with consequences for genetic incompatibilities between species through TE/repressor mismatches in hybrids. Together, our results suggest that the sequence content of female-specific W chromosomes can have effects far beyond sex determination and gene dosage. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part II)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Peona
- Department of Organismal Biology—Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Julie Blommaert
- Department of Organismal Biology—Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jing Liu
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Department of Neuroscience and Development, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tri Haryoko
- Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Research Centre for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia
| | - Knud A. Jønsson
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin Irestedt
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Qi Zhou
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Department of Neuroscience and Development, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310052, People's Republic of China
| | - Patric Jern
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Alexander Suh
- Department of Organismal Biology—Systematic Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- School of Biological Sciences—Organisms and the Environment, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
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11
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Sexually antagonistic coevolution between the sex chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2003359118. [PMID: 33602805 PMCID: PMC7923534 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2003359118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex chromosomes are not only involved in genetic sex determination—they are also important factors in sexual conflict and speciation. Using laboratory experiments and population genetic modeling, we show that the sex chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster can coevolve antagonistically. We found that swapping sex chromosomes between five D. melanogaster populations increased male fitness, apparently at the cost of reduced offspring survival. After 25 generations, these fitness effects had disappeared, consistent with the resolution of conflict after disrupting antagonistically coevolved X- and Y-linked genes. Our population genetic models show that antagonistic coevolution between sex chromosomes is a biologically plausible explanation for our empirical findings. Together, our empirical and theoretical results provide support for a potential path to speciation through sexual conflict. Antagonistic interactions between the sexes are important drivers of evolutionary divergence. Interlocus sexual conflict is generally described as a conflict between alleles at two interacting loci whose identity and genomic location are arbitrary, but with opposite fitness effects in each sex. We build on previous theory by suggesting that when loci under interlocus sexual conflict are located on the sex chromosomes it can lead to cycles of antagonistic coevolution between them and therefore between the sexes. We tested this hypothesis by performing experimental crosses using Drosophila melanogaster where we reciprocally exchanged the sex chromosomes between five allopatric wild-type populations in a round-robin design. Disrupting putatively coevolved sex chromosome pairs resulted in increased male reproductive success in 16 of 20 experimental populations (10 of which were individually significant), but also resulted in lower offspring egg-to-adult viability that affected both male and female fitness. After 25 generations of experimental evolution these sexually antagonistic fitness effects appeared to be resolved. To formalize our hypothesis, we developed population genetic models of antagonistic coevolution using fitness expressions based on our empirical results. Our model predictions support the conclusion that antagonistic coevolution between the sex chromosomes is plausible under the fitness effects observed in our experiments. Together, our results lend both empirical and theoretical support to the idea that cycles of antagonistic coevolution can occur between sex chromosomes and illustrate how this process, in combination with autosomal coadaptation, may drive genetic and phenotypic divergence between populations.
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Meisel RP. The maintenance of polygenic sex determination depends on the dominance of fitness effects which are predictive of the role of sexual antagonism. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2021; 11:6261074. [PMID: 33930135 PMCID: PMC8496315 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In species with polygenic sex determination (PSD), multiple male- and female-determining loci on different proto-sex chromosomes segregate as polymorphisms within populations. The extent to which these polymorphisms are at stable equilibria is not yet resolved. Previous work demonstrated that PSD is most likely to be maintained as a stable polymorphism when the proto-sex chromosomes have opposite (sexually antagonistic) fitness effects in males and females. However, these models usually consider PSD systems with only two proto-sex chromosomes, or they do not broadly consider the dominance of the alleles under selection. To address these shortcomings, I used forward population genetic simulations to identify selection pressures that can maintain PSD under different dominance scenarios in a system with more than two proto-sex chromosomes (modeled after the house fly). I found that overdominant fitness effects of male-determining proto-Y chromosomes are more likely to maintain PSD than dominant, recessive, or additive fitness effects. The overdominant fitness effects that maintain PSD tend to have proto-Y chromosomes with sexually antagonistic effects (male-beneficial and female-detrimental). In contrast, dominant fitness effects that maintain PSD tend to have sexually antagonistic multi-chromosomal genotypes, but the individual proto-sex chromosomes do not have sexually antagonistic effects. These results demonstrate that sexual antagonism can be an emergent property of the multi-chromosome genotype without individual sexually antagonistic chromosomes. My results further illustrate how the dominance of fitness effects has consequences for both the likelihood that PSD will be maintained as well as the role sexually antagonistic selection is expected to play in maintaining the polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P Meisel
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
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13
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Brown EJ, Nguyen AH, Bachtrog D. The Drosophila Y Chromosome Affects Heterochromatin Integrity Genome-Wide. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 37:2808-2824. [PMID: 32211857 PMCID: PMC7530609 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Drosophila Y chromosome is gene poor and mainly consists of silenced, repetitive DNA. Nonetheless, the Y influences expression of hundreds of genes genome-wide, possibly by sequestering key components of the heterochromatin machinery away from other positions in the genome. To test the influence of the Y chromosome on the genome-wide chromatin landscape, we assayed the genomic distribution of histone modifications associated with gene activation (H3K4me3) or heterochromatin (H3K9me2 and H3K9me3) in fruit flies with varying sex chromosome complements (X0, XY, and XYY males; XX and XXY females). Consistent with the general deficiency of active chromatin modifications on the Y, we find that Y gene dose has little influence on the genomic distribution of H3K4me3. In contrast, both the presence and the number of Y chromosomes strongly influence genome-wide enrichment patterns of repressive chromatin modifications. Highly repetitive regions such as the pericentromeres, the dot, and the Y chromosome (if present) are enriched for heterochromatic modifications in wildtype males and females, and even more strongly in X0 flies. In contrast, the additional Y chromosome in XYY males and XXY females diminishes the heterochromatic signal in these normally silenced, repeat-rich regions, which is accompanied by an increase in expression of Y-linked repeats. We find hundreds of genes that are expressed differentially between individuals with aberrant sex chromosome karyotypes, many of which also show sex-biased expression in wildtype Drosophila. Thus, Y chromosomes influence heterochromatin integrity genome-wide, and differences in the chromatin landscape of males and females may also contribute to sex-biased gene expression and sexual dimorphisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Brown
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
| | - Alison H Nguyen
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
| | - Doris Bachtrog
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
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14
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The Y chromosome may contribute to sex-specific ageing in Drosophila. Nat Ecol Evol 2020; 4:853-862. [PMID: 32313175 PMCID: PMC7274899 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-020-1179-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Heterochromatin suppresses repetitive DNA, and a loss of heterochromatin has been observed in aged cells of several species, including humans and Drosophila. Males often contain substantially more heterochromatic DNA than females, due to the presence of a large, repeat-rich Y chromosome, and male flies generally have shorter average life spans than females. Here we show that repetitive DNA becomes de-repressed more rapidly in old male flies relative to females, and repeats on the Y chromosome are disproportionally mis-expressed during aging. This is associated with a loss of heterochromatin at repetitive elements during aging in male flies, and a general loss of repressive chromatin in aged males away from pericentromeric regions and the Y. By generating flies with different sex chromosome karyotypes (XXY females; X0 and XYY males), we show that repeat de-repression and average lifespan is correlated with the number of Y chromosomes. This suggests that sex-specific chromatin differences may contribute to sex-specific aging in flies.
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15
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Dissecting Fertility Functions of Drosophila Y Chromosome Genes with CRISPR. Genetics 2020; 214:977-990. [PMID: 32098759 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.120.302672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene-poor, repeat-rich regions of the genome are poorly understood and have been understudied due to technical challenges and the misconception that they are degenerating "junk." Yet multiple lines of evidence indicate these regions may be an important source of variation that could drive adaptation and species divergence, particularly through regulation of fertility. The ∼40 Mb Y chromosome of Drosophila melanoga st er contains only 16 known protein-coding genes, and is highly repetitive and entirely heterochromatic. Most of the genes originated from duplication of autosomal genes and have reduced nonsynonymous substitution rates, suggesting functional constraint. We devised a genetic strategy for recovering and retaining stocks with sterile Y-linked mutations and combined it with CRISPR to create mutants with deletions that disrupt three Y-linked genes. Two genes, PRY and FDY, had no previously identified functions. We found that PRY mutant males are subfertile, but FDY mutant males had no detectable fertility defects. FDY, the newest known gene on the Y chromosome, may have fertility effects that are conditional or too subtle to detect. The third gene, CCY, had been predicted but never formally shown to be required for male fertility. CRISPR targeting and RNA interference of CCY caused male sterility. Surprisingly, however, our CCY mutants were sterile even in the presence of an extra wild-type Y chromosome, suggesting that perturbation of the Y chromosome can lead to dominant sterility. Our approach provides an important step toward understanding the complex functions of the Y chromosome and parsing which functions are accomplished by genes vs. repeat elements.
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Marais GA, Gaillard JM, Vieira C, Plotton I, Sanlaville D, Gueyffier F, Lemaitre JF. Sex gap in aging and longevity: can sex chromosomes play a role? Biol Sex Differ 2018; 9:33. [PMID: 30016998 PMCID: PMC6050741 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-018-0181-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that women live longer than men. This gap is observed in most human populations and can even reach 10-15 years. In addition, most of the known super centenarians (i.e., humans who lived for > 110 years) are women. The differences in life expectancy between men and women are often attributed to cultural differences in common thinking. However, sex hormones seem to influence differences in the prevalence of diseases, in the magnitude of aging, and in the longevity between men and women. Moreover, far from being human specific, the sex gap in longevity is extremely common in non-human animals, especially in mammals. Biological factors clearly contribute to such a sex gap in aging and longevity. Different hypotheses have been proposed to explain why males and females age and die differently. The cost of sexual selection and sexual dimorphism has long been considered the best explanation for the observed sex gap in aging/longevity. However, the way mitochondria are transmitted (i.e., through females in most species) could have an effect, called the mother's curse. Recent data suggest that sex chromosomes may also contribute to the sex gap in aging/longevity through several potential mechanisms, including the unguarded X/Z, the toxic Y/W and the loss of Y/W. We discuss future research directions to test these ideas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel A.B. Marais
- Laboratoire “Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive”- UMR 5558, CNRS / Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Jean-Michel Gaillard
- Laboratoire “Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive”- UMR 5558, CNRS / Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Cristina Vieira
- Laboratoire “Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive”- UMR 5558, CNRS / Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Ingrid Plotton
- Service d’Endocrinologie Moléculaire et Maladies Rares, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Damien Sanlaville
- Service de Génétique, Hospices Civils de Lyon, CRNL, GENDEV team, INSERM U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - François Gueyffier
- Laboratoire “Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive”- UMR 5558, CNRS / Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Jean-Francois Lemaitre
- Laboratoire “Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive”- UMR 5558, CNRS / Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
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Branco AT, Brito RM, Lemos B. Sex-specific adaptation and genomic responses to Y chromosome presence in female reproductive and neural tissues. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.2062. [PMID: 29237855 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Y chromosomes typically harbour a small number of genes and an abundance of repetitive sequences. In Drosophila, the Y chromosome comprises multimegabase long segments of repetitive DNA and a handful of protein-coding genes. In mammals, the Y chromosome also harbours a disproportionally high abundance of repeats. Here, we built on a Drosophila melanogaster model in which the Y chromosome is decoupled from sexual determination. Genotypes were genetically identical for the autosomes, X chromosome, and mitochondria, but differ by the presence or dose of the Y chromosome. Addition of an extra Y chromosome had limited impact in males. However, the presence of a Y chromosome in females induced a disproportionate response in genes expressed in the ovaries as well as genes encoded by the mitochondrial genome. Furthermore, the data revealed significant consequences of Y chromosome presence in larvae neuronal tissue. This included the repression of genes implicated in reproductive behaviour, courtship, mating and synaptic function. Our findings exhibit the Y chromosome as a hotspot for sex-specific adaptation. They suggest roles for natural selection on Y-linked genetic elements exerting impact on sex-specific tissues as well as somatic tissues shared by males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan T Branco
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, 02115, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rute M Brito
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, 02115, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bernardo Lemos
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, 02115, Boston, MA, USA
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18
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Archer CR, Stephens RM, Sharma MD, Hosken DJ. The Drosophila simulans Y chromosome interacts with the autosomes to influence male fitness. J Evol Biol 2017; 30:1821-1825. [PMID: 28703322 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The Y chromosome should degenerate because it cannot recombine. However, male-limited transmission increases selection efficiency for male-benefit alleles on the Y, and therefore, Y chromosomes should contribute significantly to variation in male fitness. This means that although the Drosophila Y chromosome is small and gene-poor, Y-linked genes are vital for male fertility in Drosophila melanogaster and the Y chromosome has large male fitness effects. It is unclear whether the same pattern is seen in the closely related Drosophila simulans. We backcrossed Y chromosomes from three geographic locations into five genetic backgrounds and found strong Y and genetic background effects on male fertility. There was a significant Y-background interaction, indicating substantial epistasis between the Y and autosomal genes affecting male fertility. This supports accumulating evidence that interactions between the Y chromosome and the autosomes are key determinants of male fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R Archer
- Science and Engineering Research Support Facility Centre for Ecology & Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - R M Stephens
- Science and Engineering Research Support Facility Centre for Ecology & Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - M D Sharma
- Science and Engineering Research Support Facility Centre for Ecology & Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - D J Hosken
- Science and Engineering Research Support Facility Centre for Ecology & Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
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Branco AT, Schilling L, Silkaitis K, Dowling DK, Lemos B. Reproductive activity triggers accelerated male mortality and decreases lifespan: genetic and gene expression determinants in Drosophila. Heredity (Edinb) 2016; 118:221-228. [PMID: 27731328 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2016.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Reproduction and aging evolved to be intimately associated. Experimental selection for early-life reproduction drives the evolution of decreased longevity in Drosophila whereas experimental selection for increased longevity leads to changes in reproduction. Although life history theory offers hypotheses to explain these relationships, the genetic architecture and molecular mechanisms underlying reproduction-longevity associations remain a matter of debate. Here we show that mating triggers accelerated mortality in males and identify hundreds of genes that are modulated upon mating in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Interrogation of genome-wide gene expression in virgin and recently mated males revealed coherent responses, with biological processes that are upregulated (testis-specific gene expression) or downregulated (metabolism and mitochondria-related functions) upon mating. Furthermore, using a panel of genotypes from the Drosophila Synthetic Population Resource (DSPR) as a source of naturally occurring genetic perturbation, we uncover abundant variation in longevity and reproduction-induced mortality among genotypes. Genotypes displayed more than fourfold variation in longevity and reproduction-induced mortality that can be traced to variation in specific segments of the genome. The data reveal individual variation in sensitivity to reproduction and physiological processes that are enhanced and suppressed upon mating. These results raise the prospect that variation in longevity and age-related traits could be traced to processes that coordinate germline and somatic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- A T Branco
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - L Schilling
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - K Silkaitis
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - D K Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - B Lemos
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
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