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Bourke AFG. Conflict and conflict resolution in the major transitions. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231420. [PMID: 37817595 PMCID: PMC10565403 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Conflict and conflict resolution have been argued to be fundamental to the major transitions in evolution. These were key events in life's history in which previously independently living individuals cooperatively formed a higher-level individual, such as a multicellular organism or eusocial colony. Conflict has its central role because, to proceed stably, the evolution of individuality in each major transition required within-individual conflict to be held in check. This review revisits the role of conflict and conflict resolution in the major transitions, addressing recent work arguing for a minor role. Inclusive fitness logic suggests that differences between the kin structures of clones and sexual families support the absence of conflict at the origin of multicellularity but, by contrast, suggest that key conflicts existed at the origin of eusociality. A principal example is conflict over replacing the founding queen (queen replacement). Following the origin of each transition, conflict remained important, because within-individual conflict potentially disrupts the attainment of maximal individuality (organismality) in the system. The conclusion is that conflict remains central to understanding the major transitions, essentially because conflict arises from differences in inclusive fitness optima while conflict resolution can help the system attain a high degree of coincidence of inclusive fitness interests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew F. G. Bourke
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
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2
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Walsh JT, Garnier S, Linksvayer TA. Ant Collective Behavior Is Heritable and Shaped by Selection. Am Nat 2020; 196:541-554. [PMID: 33064586 DOI: 10.1086/710709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractCollective behaviors are widespread in nature and usually assumed to be strongly shaped by natural selection. However, the degree to which variation in collective behavior is heritable and has fitness consequences-the two prerequisites for evolution by natural selection-is largely unknown. We used a new pharaoh ant (Monomorium pharaonis) mapping population to estimate the heritability, genetic correlations, and fitness consequences of three collective behaviors (foraging, aggression, and exploration), as well as of body size, sex ratio, and caste ratio. Heritability estimates for the collective behaviors were moderate, ranging from 0.17 to 0.32, but lower than our estimates for the heritability of caste ratio, sex ratio, and body size of new workers, queens, and males. Moreover, variation in collective behaviors among colonies was phenotypically correlated, suggesting that selection may shape multiple colony collective behaviors simultaneously. Finally, we found evidence for directional selection that was similar in strength to estimates of selection in natural populations. Altogether, our study begins to elucidate the genetic architecture of collective behavior and is one of the first studies to demonstrate that it is shaped by selection.
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Abdi MK, Lupi D, Hardy ICW. Co-foundress confinement elicits kinship effects in a naturally sub-social parasitoid. J Evol Biol 2020; 33:1068-1085. [PMID: 32323381 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Kinship among interacting individuals is often associated with sociality and also with sex ratio effects. Parasitoids in the bethylid genus Goniozus are sub-social, with single foundress females exhibiting post-ovipositional maternal care via short-term aggressive host and brood defence against conspecific females. Due to local mate competition (LMC) and broods normally being produced by a single foundress, sex ratios are female-biased. Contests between adult females are, however, not normally fatal, and aggression is reduced when competing females are kin, raising the possibility of multi-foundress reproduction on some hosts. Here, we screen for further life-history effects of kinship by varying the numbers and relatedness of foundresses confined together with a host resource and also by varying the size of host. We confined groups of 1-8 Goniozus nephantidis females together with a host for 5+ days. Multi-foundress groups were either all siblings or all nonsiblings. Our chief expectations included that competition for resources would be more intense among larger foundress groups but diminished by both larger host size and closer foundress relatedness, affecting both foundress mortality and reproductive output. From classical LMC theory, we expected that offspring group sex ratios would be less female-biased when there were more foundresses, and from extended LMC theory, we expected that sex ratios would be more female-biased when foundresses were close kin. We found that confinement led to the death of some females (11% overall) but only when host resources were most limiting. Mortality of foundresses was less common when foundresses were siblings. Developmental mortality among offspring was considerably higher in multi-foundress clutches but was unaffected by foundress relatedness. Groups of sibling foundresses collectively produced similar numbers of offspring to nonsibling groups. There was little advantage for individual females to reproduce in multi-foundress groups: single foundresses suppressed even the largest hosts presented and had the highest per capita production of adult offspring. Despite single foundress reproduction being the norm, G. nephantidis females in multi-foundress groups appear to attune sex allocation according to both foundress number and foundress relatedness: broods produced by sibling foundresses had sex ratios similar to broods produced by single foundresses (ca. 11% males), whereas the sex ratios of broods produced by nonsibling females were approximately 20% higher and broadly increased with foundress number. We conclude that relatedness and host size may combine to reduce selection against communal reproduction on hosts and that, unlike other studied parasitoids, G. nephantidis sex ratios conform to predictions of both classical and extended LMC theories.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniela Lupi
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Ian C W Hardy
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, UK
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Kennedy P, Radford AN. Sibling quality and the haplodiploidy hypothesis. Biol Lett 2020; 16:20190764. [PMID: 32183634 PMCID: PMC7115179 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The 'haplodiploidy hypothesis' argues that haplodiploid inheritance in bees, wasps, and ants generates relatedness asymmetries that promote the evolution of altruism by females, who are less related to their offspring than to their sisters ('supersister' relatedness). However, a consensus holds that relatedness asymmetry can only drive the evolution of eusociality if workers can direct their help preferentially to sisters over brothers, either through sex-ratio biases or a pre-existing ability to discriminate sexes among the brood. We show via a kin selection model that a simple feature of insect biology can promote the origin of workers in haplodiploids without requiring either condition. In insects in which females must found and provision new nests, body quality may have a stronger influence on female fitness than on male fitness. If altruism boosts the quality of all larval siblings, sisters may, therefore, benefit more than brothers from receiving the same amount of help. Accordingly, the benefits of altruism would fall disproportionately on supersisters in haplodiploids. Haplodiploid females should be more prone to altruism than diplodiploid females or males of either ploidy when altruism elevates female fitness especially, and even when altruists are blind to sibling sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. Kennedy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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Bourke AF. Inclusive fitness and the major transitions in evolution. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 34:61-67. [PMID: 31247419 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Inclusive fitness theory is the leading framework for explaining the major transitions in evolution, whereby free-living subunits (e.g. cells, organisms) have cooperated to form new, higher-level units (e.g. organisms, eusocial societies). The theory has attracted considerable controversy. From a brief survey of the controversy's present status, I conclude that inclusive fitness theory continues to provide both a concept and a principled modelling tool of value for understanding social evolution, including major transitions. Turning to new developments in the study of major transitions, I describe work defining the point of occurrence of major transitions and, from inclusive fitness theory, the required conditions. I also suggest that it remains important to understand the evolution of individuality that occurs beyond such thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Fg Bourke
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UK.
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Chau LM, Groh AM, Anderson EC, Alcala MO, Mendelson JR, Slade SB, Kerns K, Sarro S, Lusardi C, Goodisman MAD. Genetic diversity and sex ratio of naked mole rat, Heterocephalus glaber, zoo populations. Zoo Biol 2018; 37:171-182. [PMID: 29740857 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The naked mole rat, Heterocephalus glaber, is a highly unusual mammal that displays a complex social system similar to that found in eusocial insects. Colonies of H. glaber are commonly maintained in zoo collections because they represent fascinating educational exhibits for the public. However, little is known about the genetic structure or sex ratio of captive populations of H. glaber. In this study, we developed a set of microsatellite markers to examine genetic variation in three captive zoo populations of H. glaber. We also studied sex ratio of these captive populations. Our goal was to determine levels of genetic variation within, and genetic differences between, captive populations of H. glaber. Overall, we found modest levels of genetic variation in zoo populations. We also uncovered little evidence for inbreeding within the captive populations. However, zoo populations did differ genetically, which may reflect the isolation of captive naked mole rat colonies. Finally, we found no evidence of biased sex ratios within colonies. Overall, our study documents levels of genetic variation and sex ratios in a captive eusocial mammalian population. Our results may provide insight into how to manage captive populations of H. glaber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linh M Chau
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Amy M Groh
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Emily C Anderson
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Micaela O Alcala
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Joseph R Mendelson
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia.,Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Kenton Kerns
- Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Steve Sarro
- Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia
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Kokko H. Give one species the task to come up with a theory that spans them all: what good can come out of that? Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20171652. [PMID: 29142112 PMCID: PMC5719169 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Does the progress in understanding evolutionary theory depend on the species that is doing the investigation? This question is difficult to answer scientifically, as we are dealing with an n = 1 scenario: every individual who has ever written about evolution is a human being. I will discuss, first, whether we get the correct answer to questions if we begin with ourselves and expand outwards, and second, whether we might fail to ask all the interesting questions unless we combat our tendencies to favour taxa that are close to us. As a whole, the human tendency to understand general biological phenomena via 'putting oneself in another organism's shoes' has upsides and downsides. As an upside, our intuitive ability to rethink strategies if the situation changes can lead to ready generation of adaptive hypotheses. Downsides occur if we trust this intuition too much, and particular danger zones exist for traits where humans are an unusual species. I argue that the levels of selection debate might have proceeded differently if human cooperation patterns were not so unique, as this brings about unique challenges in biology teaching; and that theoretical insights regarding inbreeding avoidance versus tolerance could have spread faster if we were not extrapolating our emotional reactions to incest disproportionately depending on whether we study animals or plants. I also discuss patterns such as taxonomic chauvinism, i.e. less attention being paid to species that differ more from human-like life histories. Textbooks on evolution reinforce such biases insofar as they present, as a default case, systems that resemble ours in terms of life cycles and other features (e.g. gonochorism). Additionally, societal norms may have led to incorrect null hypotheses such as females not mating multiply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Kokko
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Birch J. The inclusive fitness controversy: finding a way forward. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170335. [PMID: 28791162 PMCID: PMC5541557 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This paper attempts to reconcile critics and defenders of inclusive fitness by constructing a synthesis that does justice to the insights of both. I argue that criticisms of the regression-based version of Hamilton's rule, although they undermine its use for predictive purposes, do not undermine its use as an organizing framework for social evolution research. I argue that the assumptions underlying the concept of inclusive fitness, conceived as a causal property of an individual organism, are unlikely to be exactly true in real populations, but they are approximately true given a specific type of weak selection that Hamilton took, on independent grounds, to be responsible for the cumulative assembly of complex adaptation. Finally, I reflect on the uses and limitations of 'design thinking' in social evolution research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Birch
- Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London, WC2A 2AE, UK
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10
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Helanterä H, Kulmuni J, Pamilo P. Sex allocation conflict between queens and workers in Formica pratensis
wood ants predicts seasonal sex ratio variation. Evolution 2016; 70:2387-2394. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heikki Helanterä
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; POB 65 FI-00014 Helsinki Finland
- Tvärminne Zoological Station; University of Helsinki; J.A. Palménin tie 260 FI-10900 Hanko Finland
| | - Jonna Kulmuni
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; POB 65 FI-00014 Helsinki Finland
- Tvärminne Zoological Station; University of Helsinki; J.A. Palménin tie 260 FI-10900 Hanko Finland
- Current Address: Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Alfred Denny Building; University of Sheffield; Western Bank S10 2TN Sheffield United Kingdom
- Department of Biology and Biocenter Oulu; University of Oulu; FI-90014 Oulu Finland
| | - Pekka Pamilo
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; POB 65 FI-00014 Helsinki Finland
- Tvärminne Zoological Station; University of Helsinki; J.A. Palménin tie 260 FI-10900 Hanko Finland
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Abstract
Kin selection and multilevel selection are two major frameworks in evolutionary biology that aim at explaining the evolution of social behaviors. However, the relationship between these two theories has been plagued by controversy for almost half a century and debates about their relevance and usefulness in explaining social evolution seem to rekindle at regular intervals. Here, we first provide a concise introduction into the kin selection and multilevel selection theories and shed light onto the roots of the controversy surrounding them. We then review two major aspects of the current debate: the presumed formal equivalency of the two theories and the question whether group selection can lead to group adaptation. We conclude by arguing that the two theories can offer complementary approaches to the study of social evolution: kin selection approaches usually focus on the identification of optimal phenotypes and thus on the endresult of a selection process, whereas multilevel selection approaches focus on the ongoing selection process itself. The two theories thus provide different perspectives that might be fruitfully combined to promote our understanding of the evolution in group-structured populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jos Kramer
- Zoological Institute, Evolutionary Biology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Joël Meunier
- Zoological Institute, Evolutionary Biology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR 7261, CNRS, Université François Rabelais, Tours, France
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12
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Rousset F. Regression, least squares, and the general version of inclusive fitness. Evolution 2015; 69:2963-70. [PMID: 26454155 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A general version of inclusive fitness based on regression is rederived with minimal mathematics and directly from the verbal interpretation of its terms that motivated the original formulation of the inclusive fitness concept. This verbal interpretation is here extended to provide the two relationships required to determine the two coefficients -c and b. These coefficients retain their definition as expected effects on the fitness of an individual, respectively of a change in allelic state of this individual, and of correlated change in allelic state of social partners. The known least-squares formulation of the relationships determining b and c can be immediately deduced and shown to be equivalent to this new formulation. These results make clear that criticisms of the mathematical tools (in particular least-squares regression) previously used to derive this version of inclusive fitness are misdirected.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Rousset
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE CC 065, Place E. Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier cedex 05, France.
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