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Baird RB, Mongue AJ, Ross L. Why put all your eggs in one basket? Evolutionary perspectives on the origins of monogenic reproduction. Heredity (Edinb) 2023:10.1038/s41437-023-00632-7. [PMID: 37328587 PMCID: PMC10382564 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-023-00632-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexual reproduction is ubiquitous in eukaryotes, but the mechanisms by which sex is determined are diverse and undergo rapid turnovers in short evolutionary timescales. Usually, an embryo's sex is fated at the moment of fertilisation, but in rare instances it is the maternal genotype that determines the offspring's sex. These systems are often characterised by mothers producing single-sex broods, a phenomenon known as monogeny. Monogenic reproduction is well documented in Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps), where it is associated with a eusocial lifestyle. However, it is also known to occur in three families in Diptera (true flies): Sciaridae, Cecidomyiidae and Calliphoridae. Here we review current knowledge of monogenic reproduction in these dipteran clades. We discuss how this strange reproductive strategy might evolve, and we consider the potential contributions of inbreeding, sex ratio distorters, and polygenic control of the sex ratio. Finally, we provide suggestions on future work to elucidate the origins of this unusual reproductive strategy. We propose that studying these systems will contribute to our understanding of the evolution and turnover of sex determination systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Baird
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK.
| | - Andrew J Mongue
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Laura Ross
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
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2
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Richardson JML, Alexander HJ, Anholt BR. Variance components of sex determination in the copepod Tigriopus californicus estimated from a pedigree analysis. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9997. [PMID: 37153021 PMCID: PMC10154854 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Extensive theory exists regarding population sex ratio evolution that predicts equal sex ratio (when parental investment is equal). In most animals, sex chromosomes determine the sex of offspring, and this fixed genotype for sex has made theory difficult to test since genotypic variance for the trait (sex) is lacking. It has long been argued that the genotype has become fixed in most animals due to the strong selection for equal sex ratios. The marine copepod Tigriopus californicus has no sex chromosomes, multiple genes affecting female brood sex ratio, and a brood sex ratio that responds to selection. The species thus provides an opportune system in which to test established sex ratio theory. In this paper, we further our exploration of polygenic sex determination in T. californicus using an incomplete diallel crossing design for analysis of the variance components of sex determination in the species. Our data confirm the presence of extra-binomial variance for sex, further confirming that sex is not determined through simple Mendelian trait inheritance. In addition, our crosses and backcrosses of isofemale lines selected for biased brood sex ratios show intermediate phenotypic means, as expected if sex is a threshold trait determined by an underlying "liability" trait controlled by many genes of small effects. Furthermore, crosses between families from the same selection line had similar increases in phenotypic variance as crosses between families from different selection lines, suggesting families from artificial selection lines responded to selection pressure through different underlying genetic bases. Finally, we estimate heritability of an individual to be male or female on the observed binary scale as 0.09 (95% CI: 0.034-0.14). This work furthers our accumulating evidence for polygenic sex determination in T. californicus laying the foundation for this as a model species in future studies of sex ratio evolution theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean M. L. Richardson
- Bamfield Marine Sciences CentreBamfieldBritish ColumbiaCanadaV0R 1B0
- Department of BiologyUniversity of VictoriaVictoriaBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | | | - Bradley R. Anholt
- Bamfield Marine Sciences CentreBamfieldBritish ColumbiaCanadaV0R 1B0
- Department of BiologyUniversity of VictoriaVictoriaBritish ColumbiaCanada
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3
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Moore EC, Ciccotto PJ, Peterson EN, Lamm MS, Albertson RC, Roberts RB. Polygenic sex determination produces modular sex polymorphism in an African cichlid fish. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2118574119. [PMID: 35357968 PMCID: PMC9168840 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2118574119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
For many vertebrates, a single genetic locus initiates a cascade of developmental sex differences in the gonad and throughout the organism, resulting in adults with two phenotypically distinct sexes. Species with polygenic sex determination (PSD) have multiple interacting sex determination alleles segregating within a single species, allowing for more than two genotypic sexes and scenarios where sex genotype at a given locus can be decoupled from gonadal sex. Here we investigate the effects of PSD on secondary sexual characteristics in the cichlid fish Metriaclima mbenjii, where one female (W) and one male (Y) sex determination allele interact to produce siblings with four possible sex classes: ZZXX females, ZWXX females, ZWXY females, and ZZXY males. We find that PSD in M. mbenjii produces an interplay of sex linkage and sex limitation resulting in modular variation in morphological and behavioral traits. Further, the evolution or introgression of a newly acquired sex determiner creates additional axes of phenotypic variation for varied traits, including genital morphology, craniofacial morphology, gastrointestinal morphology, and home tank behaviors. In contrast to single-locus sex determination, which broadly results in sexual dimorphism, polygenic sex determination can induce higher-order sexual polymorphism. The modularity of secondary sexual characteristics produced by PSD provides context for understanding the evolutionary causes and consequences of maintenance, gain, or loss of sex determination alleles in populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily C. Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812
| | | | - Erin N. Peterson
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
- Genetics and Genomics Academy, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Melissa S. Lamm
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
- Genetics and Genomics Academy, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | | | - Reade B. Roberts
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
- Genetics and Genomics Academy, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
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4
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Delclos PJ, Adhikari K, Hassan O, Cambric JE, Matuk AG, Presley RI, Tran J, Sriskantharajah V, Meisel RP. Thermal tolerance and preference are both consistent with the clinal distribution of house fly proto-Y chromosomes. Evol Lett 2021; 5:495-506. [PMID: 34621536 PMCID: PMC8484723 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Selection pressures can vary within localized areas and across massive geographical scales. Temperature is one of the best studied ecologically variable abiotic factors that can affect selection pressures across multiple spatial scales. Organisms rely on physiological (thermal tolerance) and behavioral (thermal preference) mechanisms to thermoregulate in response to environmental temperature. In addition, spatial heterogeneity in temperatures can select for local adaptation in thermal tolerance, thermal preference, or both. However, the concordance between thermal tolerance and preference across genotypes and sexes within species and across populations is greatly understudied. The house fly, Musca domestica, is a well-suited system to examine how genotype and environment interact to affect thermal tolerance and preference. Across multiple continents, house fly males from higher latitudes tend to carry the male-determining gene on the Y chromosome, whereas those from lower latitudes usually have the male determiner on the third chromosome. We tested whether these two male-determining chromosomes differentially affect thermal tolerance and preference as predicted by their geographical distributions. We identify effects of genotype and developmental temperature on male thermal tolerance and preference that are concordant with the natural distributions of the chromosomes, suggesting that temperature variation across the species range contributes to the maintenance of the polymorphism. In contrast, female thermal preference is bimodal and largely independent of congener male genotypes. These sexually dimorphic thermal preferences suggest that temperature-dependent mating dynamics within populations could further affect the distribution of the two chromosomes. Together, the differences in thermal tolerance and preference across sexes and male genotypes suggest that different selection pressures may affect the frequencies of the male-determining chromosomes across different spatial scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo J. Delclos
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Kiran Adhikari
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Oluwatomi Hassan
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Jessica E. Cambric
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Anna G. Matuk
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Rebecca I. Presley
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Jessica Tran
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
| | - Vyshnika Sriskantharajah
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
- School of Biomedical InformaticsUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTexas77030
| | - Richard P. Meisel
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of HoustonHoustonTexas77004
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Meisel RP. The maintenance of polygenic sex determination depends on the dominance of fitness effects which are predictive of the role of sexual antagonism. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2021; 11:6261074. [PMID: 33930135 PMCID: PMC8496315 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In species with polygenic sex determination (PSD), multiple male- and female-determining loci on different proto-sex chromosomes segregate as polymorphisms within populations. The extent to which these polymorphisms are at stable equilibria is not yet resolved. Previous work demonstrated that PSD is most likely to be maintained as a stable polymorphism when the proto-sex chromosomes have opposite (sexually antagonistic) fitness effects in males and females. However, these models usually consider PSD systems with only two proto-sex chromosomes, or they do not broadly consider the dominance of the alleles under selection. To address these shortcomings, I used forward population genetic simulations to identify selection pressures that can maintain PSD under different dominance scenarios in a system with more than two proto-sex chromosomes (modeled after the house fly). I found that overdominant fitness effects of male-determining proto-Y chromosomes are more likely to maintain PSD than dominant, recessive, or additive fitness effects. The overdominant fitness effects that maintain PSD tend to have proto-Y chromosomes with sexually antagonistic effects (male-beneficial and female-detrimental). In contrast, dominant fitness effects that maintain PSD tend to have sexually antagonistic multi-chromosomal genotypes, but the individual proto-sex chromosomes do not have sexually antagonistic effects. These results demonstrate that sexual antagonism can be an emergent property of the multi-chromosome genotype without individual sexually antagonistic chromosomes. My results further illustrate how the dominance of fitness effects has consequences for both the likelihood that PSD will be maintained as well as the role sexually antagonistic selection is expected to play in maintaining the polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P Meisel
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
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Tao W, Conte MA, Wang D, Kocher TD. Network architecture and sex chromosome turnovers: Do epistatic interactions shape patterns of sex chromosome replacement? Bioessays 2020; 43:e2000161. [PMID: 33283342 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202000161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed an astonishing diversity of sex chromosomes in many vertebrate lineages, prompting questions about the mechanisms of sex chromosome turnover. While there is considerable population genetic theory about the evolutionary forces promoting sex chromosome replacement, this theory has not yet been integrated with our understanding of the molecular and developmental genetics of sex determination. Here, we review recent data to examine four questions about how the structure of gene networks influences the evolution of sex determination. We argue that patterns of epistasis, arising from the structure of genetic networks, may play an important role in regulating the rates and patterns of sex chromosome replacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Tao
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Matthew A Conte
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Deshou Wang
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fish Reproduction and Development (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Aquatic Science of Chongqing, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Thomas D Kocher
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
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7
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Furman BLS, Cauret CMS, Knytl M, Song XY, Premachandra T, Ofori-Boateng C, Jordan DC, Horb ME, Evans BJ. A frog with three sex chromosomes that co-mingle together in nature: Xenopus tropicalis has a degenerate W and a Y that evolved from a Z chromosome. PLoS Genet 2020; 16:e1009121. [PMID: 33166278 PMCID: PMC7652241 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In many species, sexual differentiation is a vital prelude to reproduction, and disruption of this process can have severe fitness effects, including sterility. It is thus interesting that genetic systems governing sexual differentiation vary among-and even within-species. To understand these systems more, we investigated a rare example of a frog with three sex chromosomes: the Western clawed frog, Xenopus tropicalis. We demonstrate that natural populations from the western and eastern edges of Ghana have a young Y chromosome, and that a male-determining factor on this Y chromosome is in a very similar genomic location as a previously known female-determining factor on the W chromosome. Nucleotide polymorphism of expressed transcripts suggests genetic degeneration on the W chromosome, emergence of a new Y chromosome from an ancestral Z chromosome, and natural co-mingling of the W, Z, and Y chromosomes in the same population. Compared to the rest of the genome, a small sex-associated portion of the sex chromosomes has a 50-fold enrichment of transcripts with male-biased expression during early gonadal differentiation. Additionally, X. tropicalis has sex-differences in the rates and genomic locations of recombination events during gametogenesis that are similar to at least two other Xenopus species, which suggests that sex differences in recombination are genus-wide. These findings are consistent with theoretical expectations associated with recombination suppression on sex chromosomes, demonstrate that several characteristics of old and established sex chromosomes (e.g., nucleotide divergence, sex biased expression) can arise well before sex chromosomes become cytogenetically distinguished, and show how these characteristics can have lingering consequences that are carried forward through sex chromosome turnovers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L. S. Furman
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Caroline M. S. Cauret
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Martin Knytl
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
- Department of Cell Biology, Charles University, 7 Vinicna Street, Prague, 12843, Czech Republic
| | - Xue-Ying Song
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Tharindu Premachandra
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | | | - Danielle C. Jordan
- Eugene Bell Center for Regenerative Biology and Tissue Engineering and National Xenopus Resource, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL St, Woods Hole, MA 02543 USA
| | - Marko E. Horb
- Eugene Bell Center for Regenerative Biology and Tissue Engineering and National Xenopus Resource, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL St, Woods Hole, MA 02543 USA
| | - Ben J. Evans
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
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Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) analysis in Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas based on observation of individual sex changes. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9873. [PMID: 32555506 PMCID: PMC7303127 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67007-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The diverse modes of sexual reproduction in Bivalvia make it an excellent clade to understand the evolution of sex and sex determination. The cosmopolitan Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas is an ideal model for bivalve sex determination studies because of its complicated sexuality, including dioecy, sex change and rare hermaphroditism. A major barrier to C. gigas sex determination study has been the lack of information on the type of sex determination. To identify its sex-determining system, sex observation by following the same individual in two consecutive years was conducted on 760 oysters from distinct populations. Stable sexuality and sex reversal in both directions were observed, which provides a case against the protandry of C. gigas. Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) based on 26 samples with unchanged and converted sexualities was carried out for identifying sex-linked marker. One SNP Cgsl-40 was proved to be sex-related, but sex-biased heterozygosity varied between populations for RAD-seq and validation, showing no evidence for sex chromosomes or single-locus models for C. gigas primary sex determination. Information obtained in our study provides novel insight into sex determination mechanism in C. gigas.
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Faggion S, Vandeputte M, Chatain B, Gagnaire PA, Allal F. Population-specific variations of the genetic architecture of sex determination in wild European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax L. Heredity (Edinb) 2018; 122:612-621. [PMID: 30356226 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-018-0157-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Polygenic sex determination (PSD) may show variations in terms of genetic and environmental components between populations of fish species exposed/adapted to different environments. The European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) is an interesting model, combining both a PSD system and a genetic subdivision into an Atlantic and a Mediterranean lineage, with genetic substructures within the Mediterranean Sea. Here, we produced experimental progeny crosses (N = 927) from broodstock sampled in four wild populations (North Atlantic, NAT; Western Mediterranean, WEM; North-Eastern Mediterranean, NEM; South-Eastern Mediterranean, SEM). We found less females than males in the progeny, both in the global dataset (32.5%) and within each paternal group (from 25.1% for NEM to 39.0% for WEM), with significant variation among populations, dams, and sires. Sex, body weight (BW), and body length (BL) showed moderate heritability (0.52 ± 0.17, 0.46 ± 0.17, 0.34 ± 0.15, respectively) and sex was genetically correlated with BW and BL, with rAsex/BW = 0.69 ± 0.12 and rA sex/BL = 0.66 ± 0.13. A weighted GWAS performed both on the global dataset and within each paternal group revealed a different genetic architecture of sex determination between Atlantic and Mediterranean populations (9 QTLs found in NAT, 7 in WEM, 5 in NEM, and 4 in SEM, with a cumulated variance explained of 27.04%, 21.87%, 15.89%, and 12.10%, respectively) and a more similar genetic architecture among geographically close populations compared to geographically distant populations, consistent with the hypothesis of a population-specific evolution of polygenic sex determination systems in different environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Faggion
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Agripolis, Viale dell'Università, 16, 35020, Legnaro, PD, Italy.,MARBEC, Univ. Montpellier, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, Palavas-les-Flots, France
| | - Marc Vandeputte
- MARBEC, Univ. Montpellier, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, Palavas-les-Flots, France.,GABI, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, 78350, Paris, France
| | - Béatrice Chatain
- MARBEC, Univ. Montpellier, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, Palavas-les-Flots, France
| | | | - François Allal
- MARBEC, Univ. Montpellier, Ifremer, CNRS, IRD, Palavas-les-Flots, France.
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