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Nelson-Flower MJ, Grieves LA, Reid JM, Germain RR, Lazic S, Taylor SS, MacDougall-Shackleton EA, Arcese P. Immune genotypes, immune responses, and survival in a wild bird population. Mol Ecol 2023. [PMID: 36919652 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Individuals vary in their immune genotype, inbreeding coefficient f, immune responses, survival to adulthood, and adult longevity. However, whether immune genes predict survival or longevity, whether such relationships are mediated through immune responses, and how f affects immune genotype remain unclear. We use a wild song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) population in which survival to adulthood, adult longevity, and f were measured precisely, and in which immune responses have previously been assessed. We investigate four toll-like receptor (TLR) and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class IIB exon 2 genes. We test whether immune genes predict fitness (survival to adulthood or adult longevity); whether immune genes predict immune response; whether immune response predicts fitness and whether fitness, immune responses, or immune genotypes are correlated with f. We find that survival to adulthood is not associated with immune gene variation, but adult longevity is decreased by high MHC allele diversity (especially in birds that were relatively outbred), and by the presence of a specific MHC supertype. Immune responses were affected by specific immune genotypes. Survival to adulthood and adult longevity were not predicted by immune response, implying caution in the use of immune response as a predictor for fitness. We also found no relationship between f and immune genotype. This finding indicates that immune gene associations with longevity and immune response are not artefacts of f, and suggests that pathogen-mediated selection at functional loci can slow the loss of genetic variation arising from genetic drift and small population size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha J Nelson-Flower
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Biology, Langara College, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Leanne A Grieves
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jane M Reid
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Institut for Biologi, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Ryan R Germain
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Kobenhavn, Denmark
| | - Savo Lazic
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sabrina S Taylor
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University and AgCenter, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | | | - Peter Arcese
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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2
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Molecular parallelism in signaling function across different sexually selected ornaments in a warbler. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2120482119. [PMID: 35165176 PMCID: PMC8872772 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2120482119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Extravagant ornaments are thought to signal male quality to females choosing mates, but the evidence linking ornament size to male quality is controversial, particularly in cases in which females prefer different ornaments in different populations. Here, we use whole-genome sequencing and transcriptomics to determine the genetic basis of ornament size in two populations of a widespread warbler, the common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas). Within a single subspecies, females in a Wisconsin population prefer males with larger black masks as mates, while females in a New York population prefer males with larger yellow bibs. Despite being produced by different pigments in different patches on the body, the size of the ornament preferred by females in each population was linked to numerous genes that function in many of the same core aspects of male quality (e.g., immunity and oxidative balance). These relationships confirm recent hypotheses linking the signaling function of ornaments to male quality. Furthermore, the parallelism in signaling function provides the flexibility for different types of ornaments to be used as signals of similar aspects of male quality. This could facilitate switches in female preference for different ornaments, a potentially important step in the early stages of divergence among populations.
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3
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He K, Liang CH, Zhu Y, Dunn P, Zhao A, Minias P. Reconstructing Macroevolutionary Patterns in Avian MHC Architecture With Genomic Data. Front Genet 2022; 13:823686. [PMID: 35251132 PMCID: PMC8893315 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.823686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a hyper-polymorphic genomic region, which forms a part of the vertebrate adaptive immune system and is crucial for intra- and extra-cellular pathogen recognition (MHC-I and MHC-IIA/B, respectively). Although recent advancements in high-throughput sequencing methods sparked research on the MHC in non-model species, the evolutionary history of MHC gene structure is still poorly understood in birds. Here, to explore macroevolutionary patterns in the avian MHC architecture, we retrieved contigs with antigen-presenting MHC and MHC-related genes from available genomes based on third-generation sequencing. We identified: 1) an ancestral avian MHC architecture with compact size and tight linkage between MHC-I, MHC-IIA/IIB and MHC-related genes; 2) three major patterns of MHC-IIA/IIB unit organization in different avian lineages; and 3) lineage-specific gene translocation events (e.g., separation of the antigen-processing TAP genes from the MHC-I region in passerines), and 4) the presence of a single MHC-IIA gene copy in most taxa, showing evidence of strong purifying selection (low dN/dS ratio and low number of positively selected sites). Our study reveals long-term macroevolutionary patterns in the avian MHC architecture and provides the first evidence of important transitions in the genomic arrangement of the MHC region over the last 100 million years of bird evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke He
- College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Ke He, ; Piotr Minias,
| | - Chun-hong Liang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- Institute of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Peter Dunn
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Ayong Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Piotr Minias
- Department of Biodiversity Studies and Bioeducation, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łodz, Łódź, Poland
- *Correspondence: Ke He, ; Piotr Minias,
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4
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Pineaux M, Merkling T, Danchin E, Hatch SA, Leclaire S, Blanchard P. MHC-II distance between parents predicts sex allocation decisions in a genetically monogamous bird. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Theory predicts that parental heritable characteristics should shape sex allocation decisions when their effects on reproduction or survival are offspring sex-dependent. Numerous studies have questioned to what extent characteristics displayed by one of the parents matched theoretical expectations. This contrasts with the handful of studies that investigated whether compatibility between parents could also trigger selective pressures for sex allocation adjustments. We studied the genetically monogamous black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), where previous data revealed that female chicks suffered higher fitness costs from low diversity at genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) than male chicks. We predicted, and found in our dataset, that MHC-similar parents, producing low MHC-diverse offspring, should avoid the production of females. The relation between MHC-distance between parents (i.e. the functional distinctness of their MHC alleles) and offspring sex was not linear, such that MHC-dissimilar parents also overproduced sons. Overall, our results suggest that the genetically monogamous black-legged kittiwake parents flexibly adapt their reproduction and circumvent the costs of suboptimal pairing by manipulating offspring sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Pineaux
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, CNRS, IRD, UPS. 118 route de Narbonne, Bât. 4R1, 31062 Toulouse cedex 9, France
| | - Thomas Merkling
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, CNRS, IRD, UPS. 118 route de Narbonne, Bât. 4R1, 31062 Toulouse cedex 9, France
| | - Etienne Danchin
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, CNRS, IRD, UPS. 118 route de Narbonne, Bât. 4R1, 31062 Toulouse cedex 9, France
| | - Scott A Hatch
- Institute for Seabird Research and Conservation, 12850 Mountain Place, Anchorage, AK 99516, USA
| | - Sarah Leclaire
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, CNRS, IRD, UPS. 118 route de Narbonne, Bât. 4R1, 31062 Toulouse cedex 9, France
| | - Pierrick Blanchard
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, CNRS, IRD, UPS. 118 route de Narbonne, Bât. 4R1, 31062 Toulouse cedex 9, France
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5
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Qin S, Dunn PO, Yang Y, Liu H, He K. Polymorphism and varying selection within the MHC class I of four Anas species. Immunogenetics 2021; 73:395-404. [PMID: 34195858 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-021-01222-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Ducks (Anatidae) are often vectors for the spread of pathogens because of their long-distance migrations. These migrations also expose ducks to a wide variety of pathogens in their wintering and breeding grounds, and, as a consequence, we might expect strong selection on their immune genes. Here, we studied exons 2 and 3 of the MHC class I in four species of Anas ducks (A. platyrhynchos, A. poecilorhyncha, A. formosa, and A. querquedula) using Illumina-sequencing. Both exons 2 and 3 code for the peptide-binding region of class I molecules; however, most previous studies of birds have only focused on exon 3. Here, we found stronger positive selection on exon 2 than exon 3, as indicated by more species with dN/dS > 1 and higher Wu-Kabat values. There was little evidence that divergence time influenced polymorphism, the numbers of identical alleles (partial α1 or α2 regions) among four Anas, or selection, suggesting that these widespread species might share similar levels of selection from pathogens. The high similarity of allele numbers, positively selected sites (PSS), conserved motifs, and variable protein sites (VPS) supported the persistence of trans-species polymorphism in Anas for at least 10 million years. Our study revealed exon 2 as a relatively unexplored source of variation in avian MHC class I, which should be considered in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shidi Qin
- College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology On Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peter O Dunn
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, USA
| | - Yang Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology On Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hongyi Liu
- College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Ke He
- College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Applied Technology On Green-Eco-Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, Hangzhou, China.
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6
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Pineaux M, Merkling T, Danchin E, Hatch S, Duneau D, Blanchard P, Leclaire S. Sex and hatching order modulate the association between MHC-II diversity and fitness in early-life stages of a wild seabird. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:3316-3329. [PMID: 32654215 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) play a pivotal role in parasite resistance, and their allelic diversity has been associated with fitness variations in several taxa. However, studies report inconsistencies in the direction of this association, with either positive, quadratic or no association being described. These discrepancies may arise because the fitness costs and benefits of MHC diversity differ among individuals depending on their exposure and immune responses to parasites. Here, we investigated in black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) chicks whether associations between MHC class-II diversity and fitness vary with sex and hatching order. MHC-II diversity was positively associated with growth and tick clearance in female chicks, but not in male chicks. Our data also revealed a positive association between MHC-II diversity and survival in second-hatched female chicks (two eggs being the typical clutch size). These findings may result from condition-dependent parasite infections differentially impacting sexes in relation to hatching order. We thus suggest that it may be important to account for individual heterogeneities in traits that potentially exert selective pressures on MHC diversity in order to properly predict MHC-fitness associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Pineaux
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), CNRS, IRD, Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Toulouse, France
| | - Thomas Merkling
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), CNRS, IRD, Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Toulouse, France
| | - Etienne Danchin
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), CNRS, IRD, Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Toulouse, France
| | - Scott Hatch
- Institute for Seabird Research and Conservation, Anchorage, AK, USA
| | - David Duneau
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), CNRS, IRD, Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Toulouse, France
| | - Pierrick Blanchard
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), CNRS, IRD, Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Toulouse, France
| | - Sarah Leclaire
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique (EDB UMR 5174), CNRS, IRD, Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Toulouse, France
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7
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Stervander M, Dierickx EG, Thorley J, Brooke MDL, Westerdahl H. High MHC gene copy number maintains diversity despite homozygosity in a Critically Endangered single-island endemic bird, but no evidence of MHC-based mate choice. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:3578-3592. [PMID: 32416000 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Small population sizes can, over time, put species at risk due to the loss of genetic variation and the deleterious effects of inbreeding. Losing diversity in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) could be particularly harmful, given its key role in the immune system. Here, we assess MHC class I (MHC-I) diversity and its effects on mate choice and survival in the Critically Endangered Raso lark Alauda razae, a species restricted to the 7 km2 islet of Raso, Cape Verde, since ~1460, whose population size has dropped as low as 20 pairs. Exhaustively genotyping 122 individuals, we find no effect of MHC-I genotype/diversity on mate choice or survival. However, we demonstrate that MHC-I diversity has been maintained through extreme bottlenecks by retention of a high number of gene copies (at least 14), aided by cosegregation of multiple haplotypes comprising 2-8 linked MHC-I loci. Within-locus homozygosity is high, contributing to low population-wide diversity. Conversely, each individual had comparably many alleles, 6-16 (average 11), and the large and divergent haplotypes occur at high frequency in the population, resulting in high within-individual MHC-I diversity. This functional immune gene diversity will be of critical importance for this highly threatened species' adaptive potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Stervander
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden.,Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Elisa G Dierickx
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jack Thorley
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - M de L Brooke
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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8
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O'Connor EA, Hasselquist D, Nilsson JÅ, Westerdahl H, Cornwallis CK. Wetter climates select for higher immune gene diversity in resident, but not migratory, songbirds. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192675. [PMID: 31992169 PMCID: PMC7015325 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogen communities can vary substantially between geographical regions due to different environmental conditions. However, little is known about how host immune systems respond to environmental variation across macro-ecological and evolutionary scales. Here, we select 37 species of songbird that inhabit diverse environments, including African and Palaearctic residents and Afro-Palaearctic migrants, to address how climate and habitat have influenced the evolution of key immune genes, the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I). Resident species living in wetter regions, especially in Africa, had higher MHC-I diversity than species living in drier regions, irrespective of the habitats they occupy. By contrast, no relationship was found between MHC-I diversity and precipitation in migrants. Our results suggest that the immune system of birds has evolved greater pathogen recognition in wetter tropical regions. Furthermore, evolving transcontinental migration appears to have enabled species to escape wet, pathogen-rich areas at key periods of the year, relaxing selection for diversity in immune genes and potentially reducing immune system costs.
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9
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O'Connor EA, Westerdahl H, Burri R, Edwards SV. Avian MHC Evolution in the Era of Genomics: Phase 1.0. Cells 2019; 8:E1152. [PMID: 31561531 PMCID: PMC6829271 DOI: 10.3390/cells8101152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Birds are a wonderfully diverse and accessible clade with an exceptional range of ecologies and behaviors, making the study of the avian major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of great interest. In the last 20 years, particularly with the advent of high-throughput sequencing, the avian MHC has been explored in great depth in several dimensions: its ability to explain ecological patterns in nature, such as mating preferences; its correlation with parasite resistance; and its structural evolution across the avian tree of life. Here, we review the latest pulse of avian MHC studies spurred by high-throughput sequencing. Despite high-throughput approaches to MHC studies, substantial areas remain in need of improvement with regard to our understanding of MHC structure, diversity, and evolution. Recent studies of the avian MHC have nonetheless revealed intriguing connections between MHC structure and life history traits, and highlight the advantages of long-term ecological studies for understanding the patterns of MHC variation in the wild. Given the exceptional diversity of birds, their accessibility, and the ease of sequencing their genomes, studies of avian MHC promise to improve our understanding of the many dimensions and consequences of MHC variation in nature. However, significant improvements in assembling complete MHC regions with long-read sequencing will be required for truly transformative studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Reto Burri
- Department of Population Ecology, Institute of Ecology & Evolution, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07737 Jena, Germany.
| | - Scott V Edwards
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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10
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Minias P, Pikus E, Whittingham LA, Dunn PO. Evolution of Copy Number at the MHC Varies across the Avian Tree of Life. Genome Biol Evol 2019; 11:17-28. [PMID: 30476037 PMCID: PMC6319602 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evy253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is shaped by frequent gene duplications and deletions, which generate extensive variation in the number of loci (gene copies) between different taxa. Here, we collected estimates of copy number at the MHC for over 250 bird species from 68 families. We found contrasting patterns of copy number evolution between MHC class I and class IIB, which encode receptors for intra- and extracellular pathogens, respectively. Across the avian evolutionary tree, there was evidence of accelerated evolution and stabilizing selection acting on copy number at class I, while copy number at class IIB was primarily influenced by fluctuating selection and drift. Reconstruction of MHC copy number variation showed ancestrally low numbers of MHC loci in nonpasserines and evolution toward larger numbers of loci in passerines. Different passerine lineages had the highest duplication rates for MHC class I (Sylvioidea) and class IIB (Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea). We also found support for the correlated evolution of MHC copy number and life-history traits such as lifespan and migratory behavior. These results suggest that MHC copy number evolution in birds has been driven by life histories and differences in exposure to intra- and extracellular pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Minias
- Department of Biodiversity Studies and Bioeducation, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lódz, Poland
| | - Ewa Pikus
- Department of Biodiversity Studies and Bioeducation, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lódz, Poland
| | - Linda A Whittingham
- Behavioral and Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
| | - Peter O Dunn
- Department of Biodiversity Studies and Bioeducation, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Poland.,Behavioral and Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
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