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Raja RA, Patil PK, Avunje S, Kumaran M, Periyakaruppan A, Kondusamy A, De D, Jithendran KP, Alavandi SV, Vijayan KK. Natural infestation of an anchor worm, Lernaea sp. in cage culture of Asian Seabass, Lates calcarifer juveniles and its control using an anti-parasitic drug, emamectin benzoate. J Parasit Dis 2023; 47:306-318. [PMID: 37193509 PMCID: PMC10182207 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-023-01571-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasitic infestations and their control programmes are one among the challenges to be considered the most significant in aquaculture. A parasitic infestation was studied elaborately in Asian Seabass, Lates calcarifer juveniles with clinical signs, post-mortem findings, morphological and molecular identifications. In addition, those fish were also treated with emamectin benzoate (EMB) @ 50 µg kg-1 of fish body weight (BW) d-1 for 10 consecutive days under the controlled wet lab facility by feeding through the medicated feed at 4% BW. Results showed that the parasitic prevalence, parasitic intensity (PI) and mortality were 45.5%, 8.17 ± 0.15 per fish and 40% over a period of one week in that existing cage culture. The parasite was identified as a crustacean bloodsucker, anchor worm Lernaea sp. and EMB was found to be 100% effective with significant reduction in PI over a period of 10 days with improved survival rate of 90% against the untreated group. Infested but treated group revealed substantial haematological improvement in parameters such as RBC, WBC, Hb, PCV, large lymphocytes, small lymphocytes and total lymphocytes (P < 0.01). Similarly, comparative histopathology of vital organs also revealed no discernible lesions between the healthy and treated fish juvenile as compared to that of infested untreated group. Hence, EMB can be used to control the Lernaea sp. infestation in Asian Seabass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramalingam Ananda Raja
- Aquatic Animal Health and Environment Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Prasanna Kumar Patil
- Aquatic Animal Health and Environment Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Sathesha Avunje
- Aquatic Animal Health and Environment Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Mariappan Kumaran
- Social Science Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Anand Periyakaruppan
- Social Science Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Ambasankar Kondusamy
- Nutrition and Biotechnology Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Debasis De
- Nutrition and Biotechnology Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | | | - Shankar Vinayakarao Alavandi
- Aquatic Animal Health and Environment Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
| | - Koyadan Kizhakedath Vijayan
- Aquatic Animal Health and Environment Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 028 India
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Salmon lice in the Pacific Ocean show evidence of evolved resistance to parasiticide treatment. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4775. [PMID: 35347162 PMCID: PMC8960799 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07464-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) threaten the economic and ecological sustainability of salmon farming, and their evolved resistance to treatment with emamectin benzoate (EMB) has been a major problem for salmon farming in the Atlantic Ocean. In contrast, the Pacific Ocean, where wild salmon are far more abundant, has not seen widespread evolution of EMB-resistant lice. Here, we use EMB bioassays and counts of lice on farms from the Broughton Archipelago, Canada—a core region of salmon farming in the Pacific—to show that EMB sensitivity has dramatically decreased since 2010, concurrent with marked decrease in the field efficacy of EMB treatments. Notably, these bioassay data were not made available through public reporting by industry or by the federal regulator, but rather through Indigenous-led agreements that created a legal obligation for salmon-farming companies to provide data to First Nations. Our results suggest that salmon lice in the Pacific Ocean have recently evolved substantial resistance to EMB, and that salmon-louse outbreaks on Pacific farms will therefore be more difficult to control in the coming years.
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St-Hilaire S, Cheng TH, Chan SCH, Leung CF, Chan KM, Lim KZ, Furtado W, Bastos Gomes G. Emamectin Benzoate Treatment of Hybrid Grouper Infected With Sea Lice in Hong Kong. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:646652. [PMID: 33644159 PMCID: PMC7907643 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.646652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sea lice (Copepoda: Caligidae) are ectoparasites which negatively impact marine aquaculture species around the world. There are a limited number of treatments licensed for use against sea lice in tropical and semi-tropical farmed fish species. Emamectin benzoate (EB) was an effective pharmaceutical drug against sea lice infestations in several salmon industries before resistance to the product developed. This drug has not been extensively tested in marine fish within Asia. The objective of this study was to determine whether this drug could be used to treat oral infections with sea lice in hybrid grouper (Mycteroperca tigris × Epinephelus lanceolatus) cultured in saltwater net-pen sites in Hong Kong. We observed an overall reduction in sea lice infections over time, starting on the last day of the treatment up to the end of our study (i.e., 14 days after the last EB treatment). We also observed a large variation in concentrations of EB in fish on the last day of the treatment, which provides an explanation for the variation in response to the treatment. It also suggests that distribution of the medication to fish in saltwater net-pens is difficult, especially when medication is hand-mixed in the feed and possibly unevenly distributed in the daily rations. Overall, this study provides preliminary evidence that EB could be used to treat sea lice found in Hong Kong and potentially in other regions of SE Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie St-Hilaire
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tzu Hsuan Cheng
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Stephen Chi Ho Chan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Chi Fai Leung
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Ka Man Chan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Kwok Zu Lim
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - William Furtado
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Giana Bastos Gomes
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Bateman AW, Peacock SJ, Krkošek M, Lewis MA. Migratory hosts can maintain the high-dose/refuge effect in a structured host-parasite system: The case of sea lice and salmon. Evol Appl 2020; 13:2521-2535. [PMID: 33294006 PMCID: PMC7691465 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Migration can reduce parasite burdens in migratory hosts, but it connects populations and can drive disease dynamics in domestic species. Farmed salmon are infested by sea louse parasites, often carried by migratory wild salmonids, resulting in a costly problem for industry and risk to wild populations when farms amplify louse numbers. Chemical treatment can control lice, but resistance has evolved in many salmon-farming regions. Resistance has, however, been slow to evolve in the north-east Pacific Ocean, where large wild-salmon populations harbour large sea louse populations. Using a mathematical model of host-macroparasite dynamics, we explored the roles of domestic, wild oceanic and connective migratory host populations in maintaining treatment susceptibility in associated sea lice. Our results show that a large wild salmon population, unexposed to direct infestation by lice from farms; high levels of on-farm treatment; and a healthy migratory host population are all critical to slowing or stopping the evolution of treatment resistance. Our results reproduce the "high-dose/refuge effect," from the agricultural literature, with the added requirement of a migratory host population to maintain treatment susceptibility. This work highlights the role that migratory hosts may play in shared wildlife/livestock disease, where evolution can occur in ecological time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W. Bateman
- Pacific Salmon FoundationVancouverBCCanada
- Salmon Coast Field StationSimoom SoundBCCanada
| | - Stephanie J. Peacock
- Salmon Coast Field StationSimoom SoundBCCanada
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABCanada
| | - Martin Krkošek
- Salmon Coast Field StationSimoom SoundBCCanada
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Mark A. Lewis
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonABCanada
- Department of Mathematical and Statistical SciencesUniversity of AlbertaEdmontonABCanada
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5
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Sea lice exposure to non-lethal levels of emamectin benzoate after treatments: a potential risk factor for drug resistance. Sci Rep 2020; 10:932. [PMID: 31969584 PMCID: PMC6976678 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57594-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The avermectin derivative emamectin benzoate (EMB) has been widely used by salmon industries around the world to control sea lice infestations. Resistance to this anti-parasitic drug is also commonly reported in these industries. The objective of this study was to quantify the number of sea lice potentially exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of EMB while fish clear the drug after treatments. We assessed juvenile sea lice abundance after 38 EMB treatments on six Atlantic salmon farms, in a small archipelago in British Colombia, Canada, between 2007 and 2018. We fitted a standard EMB pharmacokinetic curve to determine the time when fish treated with this product would have EMB tissue concentrations below the recommended target therapeutic level. During the study, we estimated that for each sea lice treatment there was, on average, an abundance of 0.12 juvenile sea lice per fish during the time period when the concentrations of EMB would have been lower than 60ppb, the recommended therapeutic treatment level for sea lice. The findings from this study on metaphylactic anti-parasitic treatments identify a potential driver for drug resistance in sea lice that should be further explored.
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Poley JD, Braden LM, Messmer AM, Igboeli OO, Whyte SK, Macdonald A, Rodriguez J, Gameiro M, Rufener L, Bouvier J, Wadowska DW, Koop BF, Hosking BC, Fast MD. High level efficacy of lufenuron against sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) linked to rapid impact on moulting processes. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2018; 8:174-188. [PMID: 29627513 PMCID: PMC6039351 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Drug resistance in the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is a global issue for Atlantic salmon aquaculture. Multiple resistance has been described across most available compound classes with the exception of the benzoylureas. To target this gap in effective management of L. salmonis and other species of sea lice (e.g. Caligus spp.), Elanco Animal Health is developing an in-feed treatment containing lufenuron (a benzoylurea) to be administered prior to seawater transfer of salmon smolts and to provide long-term protection of salmon against sea lice infestations. Benzoylureas disrupt chitin synthesis, formation, and deposition during all moulting events. However, the mechanism(s) of action are not yet fully understood and most research completed to date has focused on insects. We exposed the first parasitic stage of L. salmonis to 700 ppb lufenuron for three hours and observed over 90% reduction in survival to the chalimus II life stage on the host, as compared to vehicle controls. This agrees with a follow up in vivo administration study on the host, which showed >95% reduction by the chalimus I stage. Transcriptomic responses of salmon lice exposed to lufenuron included genes related to moulting, epithelial differentiation, solute transport, and general developmental processes. Global metabolite profiles also suggest that membrane stability and fluidity is impacted in treated lice. These molecular signals are likely the underpinnings of an abnormal moulting process and cuticle formation observed ultrastructurally using transmission electron microscopy. Treated nauplii-staged lice exhibited multiple abnormalities in the integument, suggesting that the coordinated assembly of the epi- and procuticle is impaired. In all cases, treatment with lufenuron had rapid impacts on L. salmonis development. We describe multiple experiments to characterize the efficacy of lufenuron on eggs, larvae, and parasitic stages of L. salmonis, and provide the most comprehensive assessment of the physiological responses of a marine arthropod to a benzoylurea chemical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D Poley
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Laura M Braden
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Amber M Messmer
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria BC, V8W 3N5, Canada.
| | - Okechukwu O Igboeli
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Shona K Whyte
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Alicia Macdonald
- Elanco Canada Limited, 150 Research Lane, Guelph, Ontario N1G 4T2, Canada.
| | - Jose Rodriguez
- Elanco Canada Limited, 150 Research Lane, Guelph, Ontario N1G 4T2, Canada.
| | - Marta Gameiro
- Elanco Canada Limited, 150 Research Lane, Guelph, Ontario N1G 4T2, Canada.
| | - Lucien Rufener
- Elanco Centre de Recherche Santé Animale SA, CH-1566 St.-Aubin, Switzerland; INVENesis LLC, Chemin de Belleroche 14, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
| | - Jacques Bouvier
- Elanco Centre de Recherche Santé Animale SA, CH-1566 St.-Aubin, Switzerland; INVENesis LLC, Chemin de Belleroche 14, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
| | - Dorota W Wadowska
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PEI, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Ben F Koop
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria BC, V8W 3N5, Canada.
| | - Barry C Hosking
- Elanco Canada Limited, 150 Research Lane, Guelph, Ontario N1G 4T2, Canada.
| | - Mark D Fast
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
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Marín SL, Mancilla J, Hausdorf MA, Bouchard D, Tudor MS, Kane F. Sensitivity assessment of sea lice to chemotherapeutants: Current bioassays and best practices. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2018; 41:995-1003. [PMID: 29251354 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Traditional bioassays are still necessary to test sensitivity of sea lice species to chemotherapeutants, but the methodology applied by the different scientists has varied over time in respect to that proposed in "Sea lice resistance to chemotherapeutants: A handbook in resistance management" (2006). These divergences motivated the organization of a workshop during the Sea Lice 2016 conference "Standardization of traditional bioassay process by sharing best practices." There was an agreement by the attendants to update the handbook. The objective of this article is to provide a baseline analysis of the methodology for traditional bioassays and to identify procedures that need to be addressed to standardize the protocol. The methodology was divided into the following steps: bioassay design; material and equipment; sea lice collection, transportation and laboratory reception; preparation of dilution; parasite exposure; response evaluation; data analysis; and reporting. Information from the presentations of the workshop, and also from other studies, allowed for the identification of procedures inside a given step that need to be standardized as they were reported to be performed differently by the different working groups. Bioassay design and response evaluation were the targeted steps where more procedures need to be analysed and agreed upon.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Marín
- Institute of Aquaculture, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
- Centro FONDAP de Investigación en Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - J Mancilla
- PhD Aquaculture Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | | | - D Bouchard
- University of Maine Animal Health Laboratory, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - M S Tudor
- University of Maine Animal Health Laboratory, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - F Kane
- Aquaculture Section, Marine Institute, Galway, Ireland
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Messmer AM, Leong JS, Rondeau EB, Mueller A, Despins CA, Minkley DR, Kent MP, Lien S, Boyce B, Morrison D, Fast MD, Norman JD, Danzmann RG, Koop BF. A 200K SNP chip reveals a novel Pacific salmon louse genotype linked to differential efficacy of emamectin benzoate. Mar Genomics 2018; 40:45-57. [PMID: 29673959 DOI: 10.1016/j.margen.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Antiparasitic drugs such as emamectin benzoate (EMB) are relied upon to reduce the parasite load, particularly of the sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis, on farmed salmon. The decline in EMB treatment efficacy for this purpose is an important issue for salmon producers around the world, and particularly for those in the Atlantic Ocean where widespread EMB tolerance in sea lice is recognized as a significant problem. Salmon farms in the Northeast Pacific Ocean have not historically experienced the same issues with treatment efficacy, possibly due to the relatively large population of endemic salmonid hosts that serve to both redistribute surviving lice and dilute populations potentially under selection by introducing naïve lice to farms. Frequent migration of lice among farmed and wild hosts should limit the effect of farm-specific selection pressures on changes to the overall allele frequencies of sea lice in the Pacific Ocean. A previous study using microsatellites examined L. salmonis oncorhynchi from 10 Pacific locations from wild and farmed hosts and found no population structure. Recently however, a farm population of sea lice was detected where EMB bioassay exposure tolerance was abnormally elevated. In response, we have developed a Pacific louse draft genome that complements the previously-released Atlantic louse sequence. These genomes were combined with whole-genome re-sequencing data to design a highly sensitive 201,279 marker SNP array applicable for both subspecies (90,827 validated Pacific loci; 153,569 validated Atlantic loci). Notably, kmer spectrum analysis of the re-sequenced samples indicated that Pacific lice exhibit a large within-individual heterozygosity rate (average of 1 in every 72 bases) that is markedly higher than that of Atlantic individuals (1 in every 173 bases). The SNP chip was used to produce a high-density map for Atlantic sea louse linkage group 5 that was previously shown to be associated with EMB tolerance in Atlantic lice. Additionally, 478 Pacific louse samples from farmed and wild hosts obtained between 2005 and 2014 were also genotyped on the array. Clustering analysis allowed us to detect the apparent emergence of an otherwise rare genotype at a high frequency among the lice collected from two farms in 2013 that had reported elevated EMB tolerance. This genotype was not observed in louse samples collected from the same farm in 2010, nor in any lice sampled from other locations prior to 2013. However, this genotype was detected at low frequencies in louse samples from farms in two locations reporting elevated EMB tolerance in 2014. These results suggest that a rare genotype present in Pacific lice may be locally expanded in farms after EMB treatment. Supporting this hypothesis, 437 SNPs associated with this genotype were found to be in a region of linkage group 5 that overlaps the region associated with EMB resistance in Atlantic lice. Finally, five of the top diagnostic SNPs within this region were used to screen lice that had been subjected to an EMB survival assay, revealing a significant association between these SNPs and EMB treatment outcome. To our knowledge this work is the first report to identify a genetic link to altered EMB efficacy in L. salmonis in the Pacific Ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber M Messmer
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Jong S Leong
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Eric B Rondeau
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Anita Mueller
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Cody A Despins
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - David R Minkley
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Matthew P Kent
- Centre for Integrative Genetics (CIGENE), Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.
| | - Sigbjørn Lien
- Centre for Integrative Genetics (CIGENE), Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.
| | - Brad Boyce
- Marine Harvest Canada, Campbell River, BC, Canada.
| | | | - Mark D Fast
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Joseph D Norman
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; Present address: The Hospital for Sick Children, 686 Bay St., Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada.
| | - Roy G Danzmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Ben F Koop
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada; Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3N5, Canada.
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Kreitzman M, Ashander J, Driscoll J, Bateman AW, Chan KMA, Lewis MA, Krkosek M. Wild Salmon Sustain the Effectiveness of Parasite Control on Salmon Farms: Conservation Implications from an Evolutionary Ecosystem Service. Conserv Lett 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/conl.12395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Maayan Kreitzman
- Institute for Resources, Environment, and Sustainability; University of British Columbia; 429-2202 Main Mall (4th floor) Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Jaime Ashander
- Department of Environmental Science & Policy; University of California; One Shields Ave Davis Davis CA 95616 USA
| | - John Driscoll
- Institute for Resources, Environment, and Sustainability; University of British Columbia; 429-2202 Main Mall (4th floor) Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Andrew W Bateman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta CW 405; Biological Sciences Bldg.; Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada
- Salmon Coast Field Station; General Delivery, Simoom Sound BC V0P 1S0 Canada
| | - Kai M. A. Chan
- Institute for Resources, Environment, and Sustainability; University of British Columbia; 429-2202 Main Mall (4th floor) Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Mark A. Lewis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta CW 405; Biological Sciences Bldg.; Edmonton AB T6G 2E9 Canada
- Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences; University of Alberta; 545B CAB Edmonton AB T6G 2G1 Canada
| | - Martin Krkosek
- Salmon Coast Field Station; General Delivery, Simoom Sound BC V0P 1S0 Canada
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Toronto; 25 Willcocks Street Toronto Ontario M5S 3B2 Canada
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Poley JD, Sutherland BJG, Fast MD, Koop BF, Jones SRM. Effects of the vertically transmitted microsporidian Facilispora margolisi and the parasiticide emamectin benzoate on salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis). BMC Genomics 2017; 18:630. [PMID: 28818044 PMCID: PMC5561633 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4040-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microsporidia are highly specialized, parasitic fungi that infect a wide range of eukaryotic hosts from all major taxa. Infections cause a variety of damaging effects on host physiology from increased stress to death. The microsporidian Facilispora margolisi infects the Pacific salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis oncorhynchi), an economically and ecologically important ectoparasitic copepod that can impact wild and cultured salmonids. Results Vertical transmission of F. margolisi was demonstrated by using PCR and in situ hybridization to identify and localize microsporidia in female L. salmonis and their offspring. Spores and developmental structures of F. margolisi were identified in 77% of F1 generation copepods derived from infected females while offspring from uninfected females all tested negative for the microsporidia. The transcriptomic response of the salmon louse to F. margolisi was profiled at both the copepodid larval stage and the pre-adult stage using microarray technology. Infected copepodids differentially expressed 577 transcripts related to stress, ATP generation and structural components of muscle and cuticle. The infection also impacted the response of the copepodid to the parasiticide emamectin benzoate (EMB) at a low dose of 1.0 ppb for 24 h. A set of 48 transcripts putatively involved in feeding and host immunomodulation were up to 8-fold underexpressed in the F. margolisi infected copepodids treated with EMB compared with controls or either stressor alone. Additionally, these infected lice treated with EMB also overexpressed 101 transcripts involved in stress resistance and signalling compared to the other groups. In contrast, infected pre-adult lice did not display a stress response, suggesting a decrease in microsporidian virulence associated with lice maturity. Furthermore, copepodid infectivity and moulting was not affected by the microsporidian infection. Conclusions This study demonstrated that F. margolisi is transmitted vertically between salmon louse generations and that biological impacts of infection differ depending on the stage of the copepod host. The infection caused significant perturbations of larval transcriptomes and therefore must be considered in future studies in which impacts to host development and environmental factors are assessed. Fitness impacts are probably minor, although the interaction between pesticide exposure and microsporidian infection merits further study. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-4040-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D Poley
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Ben J G Sutherland
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC, V8W 3N5, Canada.,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Département de biologie, Université Laval, 1030 Avenue de la Medecine, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Mark D Fast
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Department of Pathology & Microbiology, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Ben F Koop
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC, V8W 3N5, Canada
| | - Simon R M Jones
- Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC, V9T 6N7, Canada.
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11
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The Caligus rogercresseyi miRNome: Discovery and transcriptome profiling during the sea lice ontogeny. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aggene.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Carmona-Antoñanzas G, Humble JL, Carmichael SN, Heumann J, Christie HR, Green DM, Bassett DI, Bron JE, Sturm A. Time-to-response toxicity analysis as a method for drug susceptibility assessment in salmon lice. AQUACULTURE (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 464:570-575. [PMID: 27812230 PMCID: PMC5035062 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer, 1837) is an ectoparasite causing infections of wild and farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the Northern hemisphere. While L. salmonis control at commercial mariculture sites increasingly employs non-medicinal approaches, such as cage designs reducing infection rates and biological control through cleaner fish, anti-parasitic drugs are still a requirement for effective fish health care. With only a limited range of salmon delousing agents available, all of which have been in use for more than a decade, drug resistance formation has been reported for different products. Successful resistance management requires reliable susceptibility assessment, which is usually achieved through L. salmonis bioassays. These tests involve the exposure of parasites to different drug concentrations and require significant numbers of suitable L. salmonis stages. The present study reports an alternative bioassay that is based on time-to-response toxicity analyses and can be carried out with limited parasite numbers. The assay determines the median effective time (ET50), i.e., the time required until impaired swimming and/or attachment behaviour becomes apparent in 50% of parasites, by conducting repeated examinations of test animals starting at the time point where exposure to a set drug concentration commences. This experimental approach further allows the estimation of the apparent drug susceptibility of individual L. salmonis by determining their time to response, which may prove useful in experiments designed to elucidate associations between genetic factors and the drug susceptibility phenotype of parasites. Three laboratory strains of L. salmonis differing in susceptibility to emamectin benzoate were characterised using standard 24 h bioassays and time-to-response toxicity assays. While both the median effective concentration (EC50) and the ET50 showed variability between experimental repeats, both types of bioassay consistently discriminated susceptible and drug-resistant L. salmonis laboratory strains. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE Infections by sea lice cause significant costs to the global salmon farming industry, which have been estimated to exceed €300 million per year worldwide. Control of sea lice still relies to a significant extent on chemical delousing; however, chemical control is threatened by resistance formation. Resistance can be combated by rotation between different drugs and strategic implementation of non-medicinal strategies. However, resistance management requires reliable and feasible methods of susceptibility assessment. The present study is a technical note introducing a novel approach to susceptibility assessments in sea lice. The method can be applied in susceptibility assessments on farms, where it offers the advantage of a reduced requirement of parasites for testing. In addition, the novel method allows deriving the times of parasite require to show a response after drug treatment has started, thus providing a variable characterizing the drug susceptibility phenotype of individual parasites. Accordingly, the bioassay approach presented here will be useful for studies aiming at unravelling the genetic determinants of drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta Carmona-Antoñanzas
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Joseph L. Humble
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Stephen N. Carmichael
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Jan Heumann
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Hayden R.L. Christie
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Darren M. Green
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - David I. Bassett
- Marine Environmental Research Laboratory, University of Stirling, Machrihanish, Argyll, PA28 6PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - James E. Bron
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Armin Sturm
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
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Rittenhouse MA, Revie CW, Hurford A. A model for sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) dynamics in a seasonally changing environment. Epidemics 2016; 16:8-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Poley JD, Sutherland BJG, Jones SRM, Koop BF, Fast MD. Sex-biased gene expression and sequence conservation in Atlantic and Pacific salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis). BMC Genomics 2016; 17:483. [PMID: 27377915 PMCID: PMC4932673 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2835-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salmon lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Copepoda: Caligidae), are highly important ectoparasites of farmed and wild salmonids, and cause multi-million dollar losses to the salmon aquaculture industry annually. Salmon lice display extensive sexual dimorphism in ontogeny, morphology, physiology, behavior, and more. Therefore, the identification of transcripts with differential expression between males and females (sex-biased transcripts) may help elucidate the relationship between sexual selection and sexually dimorphic characteristics. RESULTS Sex-biased transcripts were identified from transcriptome analyses of three L. salmonis populations, including both Atlantic and Pacific subspecies. A total of 35-43 % of all quality-filtered transcripts were sex-biased in L. salmonis, with male-biased transcripts exhibiting higher fold change than female-biased transcripts. For Gene Ontology and functional analyses, a consensus-based approach was used to identify concordantly differentially expressed sex-biased transcripts across the three populations. A total of 127 male-specific transcripts (i.e. those without detectable expression in any female) were identified, and were enriched with reproductive functions (e.g. seminal fluid and male accessory gland proteins). Other sex-biased transcripts involved in morphogenesis, feeding, energy generation, and sensory and immune system development and function were also identified. Interestingly, as observed in model systems, male-biased L. salmonis transcripts were more frequently without annotation compared to female-biased or unbiased transcripts, suggesting higher rates of sequence divergence in male-biased transcripts. CONCLUSIONS Transcriptome differences between male and female L. salmonis described here provide key insights into the molecular mechanisms controlling sexual dimorphism in L. salmonis. This analysis offers targets for parasite control and provides a foundation for further analyses exploring critical topics such as the interaction between sex and drug resistance, sex-specific factors in host-parasite relationships, and reproductive roles within L. salmonis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D Poley
- Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Ben J G Sutherland
- Department of Biology, Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC, V8W 3 N5, Canada.,Present address: Département de biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèms (IBIS), Université Laval, 1030 Avenue de la Medecine, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Simon R M Jones
- Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC, V9T 6 N7, Canada
| | - Ben F Koop
- Department of Biology, Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC, V8W 3 N5, Canada
| | - Mark D Fast
- Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
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Farlora R, Valenzuela-Muñoz V, Chávez-Mardones J, Gallardo-Escárate C. Aquaporin family genes exhibit developmentally-regulated and host-dependent transcription patterns in the sea louse Caligus rogercresseyi. Gene 2016; 585:119-127. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Revised: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Skilbrei OT, Espedal PG, Nilsen F, Garcia EP, Glover KA. Evaluation of emamectin benzoate and substance EX against salmon lice in sea-ranched Atlantic salmon smolts. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2015; 113:187-194. [PMID: 25850396 DOI: 10.3354/dao02832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Experimental releases of Atlantic salmon smolts treated with emamectin benzoate (EB) against salmon lice have previously been used to estimate the significance of salmon lice on the survival of migrating smolts. In recent years, the salmon louse has developed reduced sensitivity to EB, which may influence the results of such release experiments. We therefore tested the use of 2 anti-lice drugs: EB was administered to salmon smolts in high doses by intra-peritoneal injection and the prophylactic substance EX (SubEX) was administered by bathing. A third, untreated control group was also established. Salmon were challenged with copepodids of 2 strains of salmon lice (1 EB-sensitive strain and 1 with reduced EB-sensitivity) in mixed-group experimental tanks. At 31 d post-challenge, the numbers of pre-adult lice on treated fish were around 20% compared with the control fish, with minor or no differences between the 2 treatments and lice strains. Both treatments therefore appeared to give the smolts a high degree of protection against infestation of copepodids of salmon lice. However, significantly lower growth of the EB-treatment group indicates that bathing the fish in SubEX is less stressful for smolts than intra-peritoneal injection of EB.
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Aaen SM, Helgesen KO, Bakke MJ, Kaur K, Horsberg TE. Drug resistance in sea lice: a threat to salmonid aquaculture. Trends Parasitol 2015; 31:72-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Valenzuela-Miranda D, Nuñez-Acuña G, Valenzuela-Muñoz V, Asgari S, Gallardo-Escárate C. MicroRNA biogenesis pathway from the salmon louse (Caligus rogercresseyi): Emerging role in delousing drug response. Gene 2015; 555:231-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Sutherland BJG, Poley JD, Igboeli OO, Jantzen JR, Fast MD, Koop BF, Jones SRM. Transcriptomic responses to emamectin benzoate in Pacific and Atlantic Canada salmon lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis with differing levels of drug resistance. Evol Appl 2014; 8:133-48. [PMID: 25685190 PMCID: PMC4319862 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmon lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis are an ecologically and economically important parasite of wild and farmed salmon. In Scotland, Norway, and Eastern Canada, L. salmonis have developed resistance to emamectin benzoate (EMB), one of the few parasiticides available for salmon lice. Drug resistance mechanisms can be complex, potentially differing among populations and involving multiple genes with additive effects (i.e., polygenic resistance). Indicators of resistance development may enable early detection and countermeasures to avoid the spread of resistance. Here, we collect sensitive Pacific L. salmonis and sensitive and resistant Atlantic L. salmonis from salmon farms, propagate in laboratory (F1), expose to EMB in bioassays, and evaluate either baseline (Atlantic only) or induced transcriptomic differences between populations. In all populations, induced responses were minor and a cellular stress response was not identified. Pacific lice did not upregulate any genes in response to EMB, but downregulated degradative enzymes and transport proteins at 50 ppb EMB. Baseline differences between sensitive and now resistant Atlantic lice were much greater than responses to exposures. All resistant lice overexpressed degradative enzymes, and resistant males, the most resistant group, overexpressed collagenases to the greatest extent. These results indicate an accumulation of baseline expression differences related to resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben J G Sutherland
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria Victoria, BC, Canada ; Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Département de biologie, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Jordan D Poley
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - Okechukwu O Igboeli
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - Johanna R Jantzen
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Mark D Fast
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - Ben F Koop
- Centre for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, University of Victoria Victoria, BC, Canada
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Gallardo-Escárate C, Valenzuela-Muñoz V, Nuñez-Acuña G. RNA-Seq analysis using de novo transcriptome assembly as a reference for the salmon louse Caligus rogercresseyi. PLoS One 2014; 9:e92239. [PMID: 24691066 PMCID: PMC3972170 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the economic and environmental impacts that sea lice infestations have on salmon farming worldwide, genomic data generated by high-throughput transcriptome sequencing for different developmental stages, sexes, and strains of sea lice is still limited or unknown. In this study, RNA-seq analysis was performed using de novo transcriptome assembly as a reference for evidenced transcriptional changes from six developmental stages of the salmon louse Caligus rogercresseyi. EST-datasets were generated from the nauplius I, nauplius II, copepodid and chalimus stages and from female and male adults using MiSeq Illumina sequencing. A total of 151,788,682 transcripts were yielded, which were assembled into 83,444 high quality contigs and subsequently annotated into roughly 24,000 genes based on known proteins. To identify differential transcription patterns among salmon louse stages, cluster analyses were performed using normalized gene expression values. Herein, four clusters were differentially expressed between nauplius I–II and copepodid stages (604 transcripts), five clusters between copepodid and chalimus stages (2,426 transcripts), and six clusters between female and male adults (2,478 transcripts). Gene ontology analysis revealed that the nauplius I–II, copepodid and chalimus stages are mainly annotated to aminoacid transfer/repair/breakdown, metabolism, molting cycle, and nervous system development. Additionally, genes showing differential transcription in female and male adults were highly related to cytoskeletal and contractile elements, reproduction, cell development, morphogenesis, and transcription-translation processes. The data presented in this study provides the most comprehensive transcriptome resource available for C. rogercresseyi, which should be used for future genomic studies linked to host-parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Gallardo-Escárate
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Aquatic Genomics, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Valentina Valenzuela-Muñoz
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Aquatic Genomics, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Gustavo Nuñez-Acuña
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Aquatic Genomics, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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Gallardo-Escárate C, Valenzuela-Muñoz V, Nuñez-Acuña G, Chávez-Mardones J, Maldonado-Aguayo W. Transcriptome analysis of the couch potato (CPO) protein reveals an expression pattern associated with early development in the salmon louse Caligus rogercresseyi. Gene 2014; 536:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2013.11.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Revised: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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