Inhibition of S almonella by Bacteriocin-Producing Lactic Acid Bacteria Derived from U.S. Kimchi and Broiler Chicken

Temporal stability and community assembly mechanisms in healthy broiler cecum

In recent years, there has been an unprecedented advancement in in situ analytical approaches that contribute to the mechanistic understanding of microbial communities by explicitly incorporating ecology and studying their assembly. In this study, we have analyzed the temporal profiles of the healthy broiler cecal microbiome from day 3 to day 35 to recover the stable and varying components of microbial communities. During this period, the broilers were fed three different diets chronologically, and therefore, we have recovered signature microbial species that dominate during each dietary regime. Since broilers were raised in multiple pens, we have also parameterized these as an environmental condition to explore microbial niches and their overlap. All of these analyses were performed in view of different parameters such as body weight (BW-mean), feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and age (days) to link them to a subset of microbes that these parameters have a bearing upon. We found that gut microbial communities exhibited strong and statistically significant specificity for several environmental variables. Through regression models, genera that positively/negatively correlate with the bird's age were identified. Some short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)-producing bacteria, including Izemoplasmatales, Gastranaerophilales, and Roseburia, have a positive correlation with age. Certain pathogens, such as Escherichia-Shigella, Sporomusa, Campylobacter, and Enterococcus, negatively correlated with the bird's age, which indicated a high disease risk in the initial days. Moreover, the majority of pathways involved in amino acid biosynthesis were also positively correlated with the bird's age. Some probiotic genera associated with improved performance included Oscillospirales; UCG-010, Shuttleworthia, Bifidobacterium, and Butyricicoccaceae; UCG-009. In general, predicted antimicrobial resistance genes (piARGs) contributed at a stable level, but there was a slight increase in abundance when the diet was changed. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is one of the first studies looking at the stability, complexity, and ecology of natural broiler microbiota development in a temporal setting.

Characterization of Leuconostoc mesenteroides MJM60376 as an oral probiotic and its antibiofilm activity

Lactic acid bacteria have been widely used as probiotics for improving gut health. However, studies on oral probiotics were very limited. In this study, 67 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from fermented food and screened for antagonistic activity against Streptococcus mutans, the causative pathogen of dental caries. Leuconostoc mesenteroides MJM60376 showed the highest antagonistic activity against S. mutans KCTC3065. L. mesenteroides MJM60376 also showed oral probiotic characteristics including weak acid production, lysozyme tolerance, adhesion to oral epithelial cell (YD-38), antibiotic susceptibility, and good coaggregation ability with S. mutans. Furthermore, the biofilm formation of S. mutans was significantly reduced when cocultured with L. mesenteroides. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that amounts of attached bacteria of S. mutans and network-like structures were significantly reduced by L. mesenteroides MJM60376. Cell-free supernatant (CFS) of L. mesenteroides MJM60376 also greatly inhibited biofilm formation of S. mutans from the adherent stage, the activity remained even after it was treated with catalase, trypsin, or pH neutralized. Expression levels of biofilm formation-related genes were significantly reduced in S. mutans when it was treated with the CFS of L. mesenteroides MJM60376. Therefore, L. mesenteroides MJM60376 has great potential to be used as a multifunctional ingredient.

Study of intestinal microbial flora of local chickens to investigate the effect of probiotics Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus coagulans on the expression of ctxM and luxS pathogenic genes in isolates of Escherichia coli

Background and objective: Antibiotics are widely used worldwide. However, due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance in a wide range of microorganisms, their use worldwide has failed. Probiotics are suggested as complementary and alternative medicine. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of probiotics isolated from local chickens on the expression of luxS and ctxM genes in resistant Escherichia coli.

Materials and methods: 300 fecal samples were taken from patients referring to Imam Khomeini Hospital in Tehran during May–September 2016 and Escherichia coli samples were isolated using specific culture media and biochemical tests and then the presence of luxS and ctxM genes were identified using PCR with specific primers. In order to extract the probiotics forming spores, the intestinal contents of 10 poultry that had not used any antibiotics and probiotics were cultured, isolated, and identified using biochemical and PCR methods. Commercial strains of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus coagulans were purchased to compare their effects with native bacteria. These strains were then co-cultured with resistant Escherichia coli strains containing ctxM and luxS genes. Real-time PCR was used to evaluate the effect of these probiotics on gene expression

Results: The results indicated that 40 isolates (7.5%) of Escherichia coli were obtained from the 300 fecal samples. Thirteen samples (32.5%) were outpatients and 27 (67.5%) were inpatients. All isolates were isolated from men and women aged 21–62. Four Escherichia coli strains were isolated from patients carrying ctxM and luxS genes. Isolation of Bacillus coagulans and Bacillus subtilis from samples was confirmed by biochemical and molecular experiments. The commercial and native strains of Bacillus coagulans reduced the expression of the luxS and ctxM genes by 3.60, 3.30, 1.58, and 2.70 times respectively. Also, the commercial and native strains of Bacillus subtilis decreased the expression of the luxS and ctxM genes by 1.37, 1.10, 2.20, and 2.80 times respectively. The results of statistical analysis showed a significant relationship between the presence of native and commercial probiotics in culture and reduced expression of ctxM and luxS genes.

Conclusion: According to the results, supplements of Bacillus coagulans and Bacillus subtilis increase the effect of antibiotics resistance in Escherichia coli by reducing the expression of resistance genes.

Bacteriocins: Properties and potential use as antimicrobials

A variety of bacteriocins originate from lactic acid bacteria, which have recently been modified by scientists. Many strains of lactic acid bacteria related to food groups could produce bacteriocins or antibacterial proteins highly effective against foodborne pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Clostridium botulinum. A wide range of bacteria belonging primarily to the genera Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus have been characterized with different health‐promoting attributes. Extensive studies and in‐depth understanding of these antimicrobials mechanisms of action could enable scientists to determine their production in specific probiotic lactic acid bacteria, as they are potentially crucial for the final preservation of functional foods or for medicinal applications. In this review study, the structure, classification, mode of operation, safety, and antibacterial properties of bacteriocins as well as their effect on foodborne pathogens and antibiotic‐resistant bacteria were extensively studied.

Lactic acid bacteria starter in combination with sodium chloride controls pathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC, ETEC, and EHEC) in kimchi

Kimchi is one of the primary sources of high sodium content in the Korean diet. Low-sodium kimchi is commercially manufactured to minimize the health effects of high salt. We investigated the influence of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as starter culture in combination with 1% or 2.5% salt on the survival of pathogenic Escherichia coli and physicochemical properties of kimchi during fermentation at 10 °C and 25 °C. Among ten strains of LAB isolated from kimchi, Leuconostoc mesenteroides (KCTC 13374) and Lactobacillus plantarum (KCTC 33133) exhibited antimicrobial activities against pathogenic E. coli (EPEC, ETEC, and E. coli O157:H7) and strong tolerance to low pH (2 and 3) and 0.3% bile salts. Thus, L. mesenteroides and L. plantarum were used as starter cultures for kimchi that contained 1% and 2.5% salt. All pathogenic E. coli strains survived in kimchi regardless of starter cultures or salt concentration for over 15 days at 10 °C, but they died off within 4 days at 25 °C. Survival of pathogenic E. coli was better in naturally fermented kimchi (titratable acidity:0.65%) than kimchi fermented with starter cultures (titratable acidity:1.0%). At 10 °C, the average delta value of E. coli O157:H7 (16.15 d) was smaller than those of EPEC (20.76 d) and ETEC (20.20 d) in naturally fermented kimchi. Overall, survival ability of E. coli O157:H7 was lower than EPEC and ETEC, although differences were not significant. Reduced salt concentration from 2.5% to 1% in kimchi did not affect the growth of LAB and the fermentation period. Pathogenic E. coli died at a faster rate in kimchi fermented with starter cultures and 1% salt than in naturally fermented kimchi with 2.5% salt.

Bacteriocinogenic probiotics as an integrated alternative to antibiotics in chicken production - why and how?

The misuse of antibiotics in the livestock industry has played an important role in the spread of resistant superbugs with severe health implications for humans. With the recent ban on the use of antibiotics in poultry and poultry feed in Canada and the USA, poultry farmers will have to rely on the use of alternatives to antibiotics (such as feed acidifiers, antibodies, bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, prebiotics, and probiotics) to maintain the same productivity and health of their livestock. Of particular interest are bacteriocinogenic probiotics, that is, bacterial strains capable of producing bacteriocins that confer health benefits on the host. These bacterial strains have multiple promising features, such as the ability to attach to the host mucosa, colonize, proliferate, and produce advantageous products such as bacteriocins and short-chain fatty acids. These not only affect pathogenic colonization but improve poultry phenotype as well. Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides with multiple promising features such as being non-harmful for human and animal consumption, non-disruptive to the host microbiota eubiosis, non-cytotoxic, and non-carcinogenic. Therefore, bacteriocinogenic probiotics are at the forefront to be excellent candidates for effective replacements to antibiotics. While evidence of their safety and effectiveness is accumulating in vitro and in vivo in inhibiting pathogens while promoting animal health, their safety and history of use in livestock remains unclear and requires additional investigations. In the present paper, we review the safety assessment regulations and commercialization policies on existing and novel bacteriocinogenic and bacteriocin products intended to be used in poultry feed as an alternative to antibiotics.

Unraveling microbial fermentation features in kimchi: from classical to meta-omics approaches

Kimchi is a traditional Korean fermented food prepared via spontaneous fermentation by various microorganisms originating from vegetables such as kimchi cabbage, radishes, and garlic. Recent advances in meta-omics approaches that integrate metataxonomics, metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metabolomics have contributed to explaining and understanding food fermentation processes. Kimchi microbial communities are composed of majorly lactic acid bacteria such as Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, and Weissella and fewer eukaryotic microorganisms and kimchi fermentation are accomplished by complex microbial metabolisms to produce diverse metabolites such as lactate, acetate, CO₂, ethanol, mannitol, amino acids, formate, malate, diacetyl, acetoin, and 2, 3-butanediol, which determine taste, quality, health benefit, and safety of fermented kimchi products. Therefore, in the future, kimchi researches should be systematically performed using the meta-omics approaches to understand complex microbial metabolisms during kimchi fermentation. KEY POINTS: • Spontaneous fermentation by raw material microbes gives kimchi its unique flavor. • The kimchi microbiome is altered by environmental factors and raw materials. • Through the multi-omics approaches, it is possible to accurately analyze the diversity and metabolic characteristics of kimchi microbiome and discover potential functionalities.

Salmonella enterica's "Choice": Itaconic Acid Degradation or Bacteriocin Immunity Genes

Itaconic acid is an immunoregulatory metabolite produced by macrophages in response to pathogen invasion. It also exhibits antibacterial activity because it is an uncompetitive inhibitor of isocitrate lyase, whose activity is required for the glyoxylate shunt to be operational. Some bacteria, such as Yersinia pestis, encode enzymes that can degrade itaconic acid and therefore eliminate this metabolic inhibitor. Studies, primarily with Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium, have demonstrated the presence of similar genes in this pathogen and the importance of these genes for the persistence of the pathogen in murine hosts. This minireview demonstrates that, based on Blast searches of 1063 complete Salmonella genome sequences, not all Salmonella serovars possess these genes. It is also shown that the growth of Salmonella isolates that do not possess these genes is sensitive to the acid under glucose-limiting conditions. Interestingly, most of the serovars without the three genes, including serovar Typhi, harbor DNA at the corresponding genomic location that encodes two open reading frames that are similar to bacteriocin immunity genes. It is hypothesized that these genes could be important for Salmonella that finds itself in strong competition with other Enterobacteriacea in the intestinal tract—for example, during inflammation.

Isolation, Identification and Antimicrobial Activity of Unprecedented Lactic Acid Bacterial Isolates from Honeybees

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Lactic acid bacteria are generally recognized as safe that could be beneficial for several uses in food industry to get their health benefits. The present study was focused on the isolation and identification of some new lactic acid bacteria that might be naturally occurred in the honeybees stomach and tried to explore their benefits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty five isolates of lactic acid bacteria were isolated from the stomach of three different types of Egyptian bees (Apis mellifera lamarckii ), Carniolan bees (A.m. carnica) and hybrid Carniolan bees. Identification of isolates was carried out based on phenotypical tests and carbohydrate assimilation using API50 CHL and 16S rDNA sequencing.

RESULTS

In the present study, the results emphasized Lactobacillus plantarum to be the predominant species (62.5%), other strains were identified as Pediococcus pentosaceus (12.5%), Lactobacillus pentosus (12.5%) and Lactobacillus sakei (12.5%). Eight of 25 isolates showed a potential antibacterial activity especially against Salmonella senftenberg strain. The novel isolates (HBMSS1, HBMSS3, HBMSS4, HBMSS5, HBMSS6 and HBMSS8) showed a significant antimicrobial activity against C. botulinum, E. coli, S. Senftenberg and S. epidermidis as food borne pathogens and P. larvae and M. plutonius as honeybee pathogens.

CONCLUSION

These promising findings might be beneficial for discovering novel preservatives in food industry and substitution of antibiotic drugs used in the treatment of honeybees' infection.

Nutritional, Microbial, and Allergenic Changes during the Fermentation of Cashew 'Cheese' Product Using a Quinoa-Based Rejuvelac Starter Culture

Fermentation has been applied to a multitude of food types for preservation and product enhancing characteristics. Interest in the microbiome and healthy foods makes it important to understand the microbial processes involved in fermentation. This is particularly the case for products such as fermented cashew (Anacardium occidentale). We hereby describe the characterisation of cashew samples throughout an entire fermentation production process, starting at the quinoa starter inoculum (rejuvelac). The viable bacterial count was 10⁸ -10⁹ colony forming units/g. The nutritional composition changed marginally with regards to fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. The rejuvelac starter culture was predominated by Pediococcus and Weissella genera. The 'brie' and 'blue' cashew products became dominated by Lactococcus, Pediococcus, and Weissella genera as the fermentation progressed. Cashew allergenicity was found to significantly decrease with fermentation of all the end-product types. For consumers concerned about allergic reactions to cashew nuts, these results suggested that a safer option is for products to be made by fermentation.

Characterization and evaluation of lactic acid bacteria from indigenous raw milk for potential probiotic properties

Raw milk contains wide microbial diversity, composed mainly of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), which are used as probiotics in both human and animal husbandry. We isolated, characterized, and evaluated LAB from indigenous Bangladeshi raw milk to assess probiotic potential, including antagonistic activity (against Escherichia coli O157: H7, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Enteritidis, and Listeria monocytogenes), survivability in simulated gastric juice, tolerance to phenol and bile salts, adhesion to ileum epithelial cells, auto- and co-aggregation, hydrophobicity, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and antibiotic susceptibility tests. The 4 most promising LAB strains showed probiotic potential and were identified as Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus plantarum (which produced plantaricin EF), Lactobacillus fermentum, and Lactobacillus paracasei. These strains inhibited all pathogens tested at various degrees, and competitively excluded pathogens with viable counts of 3.0 to 6.0 log cfu/mL. Bacteriocin, organic acids, and low-molecular-weight substances were mainly responsible for antimicrobial activity by the LAB strains. All 4 LAB strains were resistant to oxacillin and 3 were resistant to vancomycin and streptomycin, with multiple antibiotic resistance indices >0.2. After further in vivo evaluation, these LAB strains could be considered probiotic candidates with application in the food industry.

Gut Microbial Dynamics during Conventionalization of Germfree Chicken

The domestic chicken is the cornerstone of animal agriculture worldwide, with a flock population exceeding 40 billion birds/year. It serves as an economically valuable source of protein globally. The microbiome of poultry has important effects on chicken growth, feed conversion, immune status, and pathogen resistance. The aim of our research was to develop a gnotobiotic chicken model appropriate for the study chicken gut microbiota function. Our experimental model shows that young germfree chicks are able to colonize diverse sets of gut bacteria. Therefore, besides the use of this model to study mechanisms of gut microbiota interactions in the chicken gut, it could be also used for applied aspects such as determining the safety and efficacy of new probiotic strains derived from chicken gut microbiota.

A gnotobiotic Gallus gallus (chicken) model was developed to study the dynamics of intestinal microflora from hatching to 18 days of age employing metagenomics. Intestinal samples were collected from a local population of feral chickens and administered orally to germfree 3-day-old chicks. Animals were euthanized on days 9 and 18 postinoculation, and intestinal samples were collected and subjected to metagenomic analysis. On day 18, the five most prevalent phyla were Bacteroidetes (43.03 ± 3.19%), Firmicutes (38.51 ± 2.67%), Actinobacteria (6.77 ± 0.7%), Proteobacteria (6.38 ± 0.7%), and Spirochaetes (2.71 ± 0.55%). Principal-coordinate analysis showed that the day 18 variables clustered more closely than the day 9 variables, suggesting that the microbial communities had changed temporally. The Morista-Horn index values ranged from 0.7 to 1, indicating that the communities in the inoculum and in the day 9 and day 18 samples were more similar than dissimilar. The predicted functional profiles of the microbiomes of the inoculum and the day 9 and day 18 samples were also similar (values of 0.98 to 1). These results indicate that the gnotobiotic chicks stably maintained the phylogenetic diversity and predicted metabolic functionality of the inoculum community.

IMPORTANCE The domestic chicken is the cornerstone of animal agriculture worldwide, with a flock population exceeding 40 billion birds/year. It serves as an economically valuable source of protein globally. The microbiome of poultry has important effects on chicken growth, feed conversion, immune status, and pathogen resistance. The aim of our research was to develop a gnotobiotic chicken model appropriate for the study chicken gut microbiota function. Our experimental model shows that young germfree chicks are able to colonize diverse sets of gut bacteria. Therefore, besides the use of this model to study mechanisms of gut microbiota interactions in the chicken gut, it could be also used for applied aspects such as determining the safety and efficacy of new probiotic strains derived from chicken gut microbiota.

Probiotics interaction with foodborne pathogens: a potential alternative to antibiotics and future challenges

Antibiotics are a key tool used nowadays in health care industry to fight against bacterial infections; however, repeated antibiotic use or misuses, have led to bacterial resistance, causing significant threats for many people with common bacterial infections. The use of probiotics to enhance gastrointestinal health has been proposed for many years. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the use of probiotic bacteria as alternatives for antibiotics for preventing or treating various intestinal infections. Several important underlying mechanisms responsible for the antagonistic effects of probiotics on different microorganisms include: (1) competitive exclusion for adhesion sites and nutritional sources; (2) secretion of antimicrobial substances; (3) enhancement of intestinal barrier function; and (4) immunomodulation. However, their mode of action is not very well understood and therefore a clearer understanding of these mechanisms is necessitated. This will enable appropriate probiotic strains to be selected for particular applications and may reveal new probiotic functions. The goal of this review was to highlight some studies from literature describing the probiotic interaction with several major foodborne pathogens, as well as explore the mechanisms for such probiotic-pathogen interaction. The review will conclude by presenting future perspective and challenges of probiotic application in food products.

Effect of Propionibacterium freudenreichii on Salmonella multiplication, motility, and association with avian epithelial cells1

We investigated the effects of a probiotic bacterium, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, on Salmonella multiplication, motility, and association to and invasion of avian epithelial cells in vitro. Two subspecies of P. freudenreichii (P. freudenreichii subsp. freudenreichii and P. freudenreichii subsp. shermanii) were tested against 3 Salmonella serotypes in poultry, namely, S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium, and S. Heidelberg, using co-culture-, motility, multiplication, cell association, and invasion assays. Both strains of P. freudenreichii were effective in reducing or inhibiting multiplication of all 3 Salmonella serotypes in co-culture and turkey cecal contents (P ≤ 0.05). P. freudenreichii significantly reduced Salmonella motility (P ≤ 0.05). Cell culture studies revealed that P. freudenreichii associated with the avian epithelial cells effectively and reduced S. Enteritidis, S. Heidelberg, and S. Typhimurium cell association in the range of 1.0 to 1.6 log10 CFU/mL, and invasion in the range of 1.3 to 1.5 log10 CFU/mL (P ≤ 0.05), respectively. Our current in vitro results indicate the potential of P. freudenreichii against Salmonella in poultry. Follow-up in vivo studies are underway to evaluate this possibility.

Pathogenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella Can Survive in Kimchi during Fermentation

The survival of Escherichia coli and Salmonella strains during diced white radish kimchi fermentation was studied. Kimchi batches inoculated with the pathogens were fermented at 4, 15, and 25°C for 42 to 384 h. Cell counts of E. coli and Salmonella were enumerated on E. coli-coliform count plates and xylose lysine deoxycholate agar, respectively. Baranyi (primary model) and polynomial (secondary model) models, validated by root mean square error, were used to describe the kinetic behavior of the pathogens. In the primary model, both the death phase shoulder ( E. coli: 208.18 to 8.25 h, 4 to 25°C; Salmonella: 79.91 to 0.97 h, 4 to 25°C) and bacterial cell counts (log CFU per gram per hour) decreased with increasing temperature ( P < 0.05) (death rate: E. coli: -0.02 to -0.09, 4 to 25°C; Salmonella: -0.01 to -0.10, 4 to 25°C), the results being equally significant in the secondary model. The root mean square error (0.480 to 0.485) showed that the model performance was good. The fermentation temperature and time are the critical factors that control pathogenic E. coli and Salmonella in kimchi.

The importance of lactic acid bacteria for the prevention of bacterial growth and their biogenic amines formation: A review

Foodborne pathogens (FBP) represent an important threat to the consumers' health as they are able to cause different foodborne diseases. In order to eliminate the potential risk of those pathogens, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have received a great attention in the food biotechnology sector since they play an essential function to prevent bacterial growth and reduce the biogenic amines (BAs) formation. The foodborne illnesses (diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, etc.) caused by those microbial pathogens is due to various reasons, one of them is related to the decarboxylation of available amino acids that lead to BAs production. The formation of BAs by pathogens in foods can cause the deterioration of their nutritional and sensory qualities. BAs formation can also have toxicological impacts and lead to different types of intoxications. The growth of FBP and their BAs production should be monitored and prevented to avoid such problems. LAB is capable of improving food safety by preventing foods spoilage and extending their shelf-life. LAB are utilized by the food industries to produce fermented products with their antibacterial effects as bio-preservative agents to extent their storage period and preserve their nutritive and gustative characteristics. Besides their contribution to the flavor for fermented foods, LAB secretes various antimicrobial substances including organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, and bacteriocins. Consequently, in this paper, the impact of LAB on the growth of FBP and their BAs formation in food has been reviewed extensively.

Fermented rapeseed meal is effective in controlling Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection and improving growth performance in broiler chicks

The aim of present experiment was to assess the effects of fermented rapeseed meal (FRSM) on Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) colonization and growth performance in broiler chicks. Two hundred forty day-old male Cobb 500 broiler chicks were divided into six experimental treatments with four replicates and 10 birds per each. The treatments were including two positive and negative controls which birds received a basal corn-soybean diet as well as four others which birds received the diets that rapeseed meal (RSM) or FRSM was replaced with soybean meal at 50 and 100% levels. All chicks except the negative control birds were challenged orally with 10⁵ CFU of S. Typhimurium at 3days of age. Results showed that birds were fed FRSM had significantly greater lactic acid bacteria populations and lesser S. Typhimurium colonization in ileal and cecal sections compared to others (P<0.05). The less percentage of liver and bursa of fabricius was belonged to negative control group. At 10day, feeding chicks with diet containing FRSM, but not RSM, significantly decreased the organ invasion by S. Typhimurium (P<0.05). Heterophil to lymphocyte ratio was significantly lesser in chicks were fed FRSM compared to those fed RSM or positive control (P<0.05). Birds were fed FRSM had significantly higher weight gain and better feed conversion ratio compared to those birds were fed RSM (P<0.05). The findings of present experiment concerning positive effects of feeding FRSM on reducing S. Typhimurium and improving growth performance show that this processed protein source can be considered as a nutritional effective strategy to control Salmonella contamination in broiler chicks.

Human microbiome versus food-borne pathogens: friend or foe

As food safety advances, there is a great need to maintain, distribute, and provide high-quality food to a much broader consumer base. There is also an ever-growing "arms race" between pathogens and humans as food manufacturers. The human microbiome is a collective organ of microbes that have found community niches while associating with their host and other microorganisms. Humans play an important role in modifying the environment of these organisms through their life choices, especially through individual diet. The composition of an individual's diet influences the digestive system-an ecosystem with the greatest number and largest diversity of organisms currently known. Organisms living on and within food have the potential to be either friends or foes to the consumer. Maintenance of this system can have multiple benefits, but lack of maintenance can lead to a host of chronic and preventable diseases. Overall, this dynamic system is influenced by intense competition from food-borne pathogens, lifestyle, overall diet, and presiding host-associated microbiota.