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Mishra S, Stany B, Das A, Kanagavel D, Vijayan M. A Comprehensive Review of Membrane Transporters and MicroRNA Regulation in Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04135-2. [PMID: 38558361 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04135-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a distressing neurodegenerative condition characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and tau tangles within the brain. The interconnectedness between membrane transporters (SLCs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) in AD pathogenesis has gained increasing attention. This review explores the localization, substrates, and functions of SLC transporters in the brain, emphasizing the roles of transporters for glutamate, glucose, nucleosides, and other essential compounds. The examination delves into the significance of SLCs in AD, their potential for drug development, and the intricate realm of miRNAs, encompassing their transcription, processing, functions, and regulation. MiRNAs have emerged as significant players in AD, including those associated with mitochondria and synapses. Furthermore, this review discusses the intriguing nexus of miRNAs targeting SLC transporters and their potential as therapeutic targets in AD. Finally, the review underscores the interaction between SLC transporters and miRNA regulation within the context of Alzheimer's disease, underscoring the need for further research in this area. This comprehensive review aims to shed light on the complex mechanisms underlying the causation of AD and provides insights into potential therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shatakshi Mishra
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - B Stany
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Anushka Das
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Deepankumar Kanagavel
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India.
| | - Murali Vijayan
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 3601 4th Street, Lubbock, TX, 79430, USA.
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2
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Bok J, Ha J, Ahn BJ, Jang Y. Disease-Modifying Effects of Non-Invasive Electroceuticals on β-Amyloid Plaques and Tau Tangles for Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010679. [PMID: 36614120 PMCID: PMC9821138 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Electroceuticals refer to various forms of electronic neurostimulators used for therapy. Interdisciplinary advances in medical engineering and science have led to the development of the electroceutical approach, which involves therapeutic agents that specifically target neural circuits, to realize precision therapy for Alzheimer's disease (AD). To date, extensive studies have attempted to elucidate the disease-modifying effects of electroceuticals on areas in the brain of a patient with AD by the use of various physical stimuli, including electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic waves as well as ultrasound. Herein, we review non-invasive stimulatory systems and their effects on β-amyloid plaques and tau tangles, which are pathological molecular markers of AD. Therefore, this review will aid in better understanding the recent technological developments, applicable methods, and therapeutic effects of electronic stimulatory systems, including transcranial direct current stimulation, 40-Hz gamma oscillations, transcranial magnetic stimulation, electromagnetic field stimulation, infrared light stimulation and ionizing radiation therapy, and focused ultrasound for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junsoo Bok
- Department of Medical and Digital Engineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04736, Republic of Korea
| | - Juchan Ha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04736, Republic of Korea
| | - Bum Ju Ahn
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul 04736, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongwoo Jang
- Department of Medical and Digital Engineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04736, Republic of Korea
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul 04736, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-2220-0655
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3
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Elbakry MMM, Mansour SZ, Helal H, Ahmed ESA. Nattokinase attenuates bisphenol A or gamma irradiation-mediated hepatic and neural toxicity by activation of Nrf2 and suppression of inflammatory mediators in rats. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:75086-75100. [PMID: 35648353 PMCID: PMC9550699 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-21126-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Nattokinase (NK), a protease enzyme produced by Bacillus subtilis, has various biological effects such as lipid-lowering activity, antihypertensive, antiplatelet/anticoagulant, and neuroprotective effects. Exposure to environmental toxicants such as bisphenol A (BPA) or γ-radiation (IR) causes multi-organ toxicity through several mechanisms such as impairment of oxidative status, signaling pathways, and hepatic and neuronal functions as well as disruption of the inflammatory responses. Therefore, this study is designed to evaluate the ameliorative effect of NK against BPA- or IR-induced liver and brain damage in rats. Serum ammonia level and liver function tests were measured in addition to brain oxidative stress markers, amyloid-beta, tau protein, and neuroinflammatory mediators. Moreover, relative quantification of brain nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) genes, as well as apoptotic markers in brain tissue, was carried out in addition to histopathological examination. The results showed that NK improved liver functions, impaired oxidative status, the cholinergic deficits, and minified the misfolded proteins aggregates. Furthermore, NK alleviated the neuroinflammation via modulating NF-κB/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and glial cell activation in addition to their antiapoptotic effect. Collectively, the current results revealed the protective effect of NK against hepatic and neurotoxicity derived from BPA or IR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa M M Elbakry
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Somaya Z Mansour
- Radiation Biology Research, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Nasr City, Cairo, 11787, Egypt
| | - Hamed Helal
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Esraa S A Ahmed
- Radiation Biology Research, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Nasr City, Cairo, 11787, Egypt.
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4
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Tripathi R, Gupta R, Sahu M, Srivastava D, Das A, Ambasta RK, Kumar P. Free radical biology in neurological manifestations: mechanisms to therapeutics interventions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:62160-62207. [PMID: 34617231 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16693-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Recent advancements and growing attention about free radicals (ROS) and redox signaling enable the scientific fraternity to consider their involvement in the pathophysiology of inflammatory diseases, metabolic disorders, and neurological defects. Free radicals increase the concentration of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in the biological system through different endogenous sources and thus increased the overall oxidative stress. An increase in oxidative stress causes cell death through different signaling mechanisms such as mitochondrial impairment, cell-cycle arrest, DNA damage response, inflammation, negative regulation of protein, and lipid peroxidation. Thus, an appropriate balance between free radicals and antioxidants becomes crucial to maintain physiological function. Since the 1brain requires high oxygen for its functioning, it is highly vulnerable to free radical generation and enhanced ROS in the brain adversely affects axonal regeneration and synaptic plasticity, which results in neuronal cell death. In addition, increased ROS in the brain alters various signaling pathways such as apoptosis, autophagy, inflammation and microglial activation, DNA damage response, and cell-cycle arrest, leading to memory and learning defects. Mounting evidence suggests the potential involvement of micro-RNAs, circular-RNAs, natural and dietary compounds, synthetic inhibitors, and heat-shock proteins as therapeutic agents to combat neurological diseases. Herein, we explain the mechanism of free radical generation and its role in mitochondrial, protein, and lipid peroxidation biology. Further, we discuss the negative role of free radicals in synaptic plasticity and axonal regeneration through the modulation of various signaling molecules and also in the involvement of free radicals in various neurological diseases and their potential therapeutic approaches. The primary cause of free radical generation is drug overdosing, industrial air pollution, toxic heavy metals, ionizing radiation, smoking, alcohol, pesticides, and ultraviolet radiation. Excessive generation of free radicals inside the cell R1Q1 increases reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, which causes oxidative damage. An increase in oxidative damage alters different cellular pathways and processes such as mitochondrial impairment, DNA damage response, cell cycle arrest, and inflammatory response, leading to pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative disease other neurological defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Tripathi
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India
| | - Rohan Gupta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India
| | - Mehar Sahu
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India
| | - Devesh Srivastava
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India
| | - Ankita Das
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Delhi, India.
- , Delhi, India.
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi, 110042, India.
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Mohammed MR, El-Bahkery AM, Shedid SM. The Influence of Different γ-Irradiation Patterns on Factors that May Affect Cell Cycle Progression in Male Rats. Dose Response 2022; 20:15593258221117898. [PMID: 35982824 PMCID: PMC9379971 DOI: 10.1177/15593258221117898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Most studies of the biological effects of ionizing radiation have been done on a
single acute dose, while clinically and environmentally exposures occur under
chronic/repetitive conditions. It is important to study effects of different
patterns of ionizing radiation. In this study, a rat model was used to compare
the effects of repetitive and acute exposure. Groups: (I) control, (II, III)
were exposed to fractionated doses (1.5 GyX4) and (2 GyX4), respectively/24h
interval, and (IV, V) were exposed to 6 Gy and 8 Gy of whole-body gamma
irradiation, respectively. The gene expression of MAPT and tau phosphorylation
increased in all irradiated groups but the gene expression of PKN not affected.
TGFβ% increased at dose of 2 GyX4 only. In addition, the cell cycle was arrested
in S phase. Micronucleus (MN) increased and cell proliferation decreased. In
conclusion, the dose and pattern of ionizing radiation do not affect the MAPT
and PKN gene expression, but TGF-β, p-tau, MN assay and cell proliferation are
significantly affected. The dose of 2 GyX4 showed distinctive effect. Repetitive
exposure may increase TGF-β%, which causes radio-resistance and, G2/M delay.
Thus, the cell cycle could be regulated in a different manner according to the
dose and pattern of irradiation.
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Fakhri S, Piri S, Moradi SZ, Khan H. Phytochemicals Targeting Oxidative Stress, Interconnected Neuroinflammatory, and Neuroapoptotic Pathways Following Radiation. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:836-856. [PMID: 34370636 PMCID: PMC9881105 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210809103346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The radiation for therapeutic purposes has shown positive effects in different contexts; however, it can increase the risk of many age-related and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease (HD), and Parkinson's disease (PD). These different outcomes highlight a dose-response phenomenon called hormesis. Prevailing studies indicate that high doses of radiation could play several destructive roles in triggering oxidative stress, neuroapoptosis, and neuroinflammation in neurodegeneration. However, there is a lack of effective treatments in combating radiation-induced neurodegeneration, and the present drugs suffer from some drawbacks, including side effects and drug resistance. Among natural entities, polyphenols are suggested as multi-target agents affecting the dysregulated pathogenic mechanisms in neurodegenerative disease. This review discusses the destructive effects of radiation on the induction of neurodegenerative diseases by dysregulating oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation. We also describe the promising effects of polyphenols and other candidate phytochemicals in preventing and treating radiation-induced neurodegenerative disorders, aiming to find novel/potential therapeutic compounds against such disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajad Fakhri
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6734667149, Iran;,Address correspondence to these author at the Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6734667149, Iran; E-mail: Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, 23200, Pakistan; E-mail:
| | - Sana Piri
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6734667149, Iran;,These authors have contributed equally to this work.
| | - Seyed Zachariah Moradi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6734667149, Iran;,Medical Biology Research Center, Health Technology Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6734667149, Iran;,These authors have contributed equally to this work.
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, 23200, Pakistan,Address correspondence to these author at the Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6734667149, Iran; E-mail: Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, 23200, Pakistan; E-mail:
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7
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Iacono D, Murphy EK, Avantsa SS, Perl DP, Day RM. Reduction of pTau and APP levels in mammalian brain after low-dose radiation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2215. [PMID: 33500491 PMCID: PMC7838187 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81602-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain radiation can occur from treatment of brain tumors or accidental exposures. Brain radiation has been rarely considered, though, as a possible tool to alter protein levels involved in neurodegenerative disorders. We analyzed possible molecular and neuropathology changes of phosphorylated-Tau (pTau), all-Tau forms, β-tubulin, amyloid precursor protein (APP), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (IBA-1), myelin basic protein (MBP), and GAP43 in Frontal Cortex (FC), Hippocampus (H) and Cerebellum (CRB) of swine brains following total-body low-dose radiation (1.79 Gy). Our data show that radiated-animals had lower levels of pTau in FC and H, APP in H and CRB, GAP43 in CRB, and higher level of GFAP in H versus sham-animals. These molecular changes were not accompanied by obvious neurohistological changes, except for astrogliosis in the H. These findings are novel, and might open new perspectives on brain radiation as a potential tool to interfere with the accumulation of specific proteins linked to the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Iacono
- DoD/USU Brain Tissue Repository and Neuropathology Core, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA. .,Department of Neurology, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA. .,Department of Pathology, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA. .,The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine (HJF), 4301 Jones Bridge Road, A1036, Bethesda, MD, 20814-4799, USA. .,Complex Neurodegenerative Disorders, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Erin K Murphy
- Department of Pathology, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA.,The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine (HJF), 4301 Jones Bridge Road, A1036, Bethesda, MD, 20814-4799, USA
| | - Soundarya S Avantsa
- DoD/USU Brain Tissue Repository and Neuropathology Core, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA.,The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine (HJF), 4301 Jones Bridge Road, A1036, Bethesda, MD, 20814-4799, USA
| | - Daniel P Perl
- DoD/USU Brain Tissue Repository and Neuropathology Core, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA.,Department of Pathology, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Regina M Day
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University (USU), Bethesda, MD, USA
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8
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Abdel-Rafei MK, Thabet NM. Modulatory effect of methylsulfonylmethane against BPA/γ-radiation induced neurodegenerative alterations in rats: Influence of TREM-2/DAP-12/Syk pathway. Life Sci 2020; 260:118410. [PMID: 32926927 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), is an organosulfur compound, has many health benefits. Bisphenol-A (BPA) and γ-radiation (R) are two risky environmental contaminants that human beings are exposed to in everyday life. This work aims at unveiling the modulatory role of MSM in combating BPA and R co-exposure induced neurodegenerative disorder (Alzheimer's (AD)-mimic neurotoxicity). MAIN METHODS Female rats were randomly divided into five groups. One group was normal control and the other four groups were subjected to subacute BPA intoxication and/or exposed to fractionated weekly doses of R for 4 weeks and either untreated or treated with MSM concomitantly. KEY FINDINGS BPA and R co-exposure induced typical hallmarks of neurodegenerative disorders as revealed by tremendously elevated oxidative stress, extensive neuroinflammation (tumor necrosis factor -α and interleukin-1β), elevated AD markers (amyloid-beta (Aβ42), acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity and tau-phosphorylation) in cortex and hippocampus as well as up-regulation of microglial pro-inflammatory triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cell-2(TREM-2)/DNAX-activating protein of 12 kDa (DAP-12)/spleen-tyrosine kinase (Syk) pathway and its downstream targets (PLC-γ/DAG/p38-MAPK) in hippocampus. Also, neurodegenerative lesions were revealed in histopathological examination of cortex and hippocampus coupled with marked Aβ deposition in hippocampus. Whereas, MSM treatment improved histopathological insults and ameliorated level of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and AD markers as well as modulated TREM-2/DAP-12/Syk pathway. SIGNIFICANCE Our data suggest that MSM afforded neuroprotection against BPA and R; supporting its potential application in the associated neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed K Abdel-Rafei
- Radiation Biology Department, National Centre for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Noura M Thabet
- Radiation Biology Department, National Centre for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo, Egypt
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9
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Sabirzhanov B, Makarevich O, Barrett JP, Jackson IL, Glaser EP, Faden AI, Stoica BA. Irradiation-Induced Upregulation of miR-711 Inhibits DNA Repair and Promotes Neurodegeneration Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21155239. [PMID: 32718090 PMCID: PMC7432239 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiotherapy for brain tumors induces neuronal DNA damage and may lead to neurodegeneration and cognitive deficits. We investigated the mechanisms of radiation-induced neuronal cell death and the role of miR-711 in the regulation of these pathways. We used in vitro and in vivo models of radiation-induced neuronal cell death. We showed that X-ray exposure in primary cortical neurons induced activation of p53-mediated mechanisms including intrinsic apoptotic pathways with sequential upregulation of BH3-only molecules, mitochondrial release of cytochrome c and AIF-1, as well as senescence pathways including upregulation of p21WAF1/Cip1. These pathways of irradiation-induced neuronal apoptosis may involve miR-711-dependent downregulation of pro-survival genes Akt and Ang-1. Accordingly, we demonstrated that inhibition of miR-711 attenuated degradation of Akt and Ang-1 mRNAs and reduced intrinsic apoptosis after neuronal irradiation; likewise, administration of Ang-1 was neuroprotective. Importantly, irradiation also downregulated two novel miR-711 targets, DNA-repair genes Rad50 and Rad54l2, which may impair DNA damage responses, amplifying the stimulation of apoptotic and senescence pathways and contributing to neurodegeneration. Inhibition of miR-711 rescued Rad50 and Rad54l2 expression after neuronal irradiation, enhancing DNA repair and reducing p53-dependent apoptotic and senescence pathways. Significantly, we showed that brain irradiation in vivo persistently elevated miR-711, downregulated its targets, including pro-survival and DNA-repair molecules, and is associated with markers of neurodegeneration, not only across the cortex and hippocampus but also specifically in neurons isolated from the irradiated brain. Our data suggest that irradiation-induced miR-711 negatively modulates multiple pro-survival and DNA-repair mechanisms that converge to activate neuronal intrinsic apoptosis and senescence. Using miR-711 inhibitors to block the development of these regulated neurodegenerative pathways, thus increasing neuronal survival, may be an effective neuroprotective strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Sabirzhanov
- Center for Shock Trauma Anesthesiology Research, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, BRB 6-015, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (O.M.); (J.P.B.); (E.P.G.); (A.I.F.)
- Correspondence: (B.S.); (B.A.S.)
| | - Oleg Makarevich
- Center for Shock Trauma Anesthesiology Research, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, BRB 6-015, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (O.M.); (J.P.B.); (E.P.G.); (A.I.F.)
| | - James P. Barrett
- Center for Shock Trauma Anesthesiology Research, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, BRB 6-015, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (O.M.); (J.P.B.); (E.P.G.); (A.I.F.)
| | - Isabel L. Jackson
- Division of Translational Radiation Sciences (DTRS), Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, MSTF 700-B, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA;
| | - Ethan P. Glaser
- Center for Shock Trauma Anesthesiology Research, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, BRB 6-015, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (O.M.); (J.P.B.); (E.P.G.); (A.I.F.)
| | - Alan I. Faden
- Center for Shock Trauma Anesthesiology Research, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, BRB 6-015, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (O.M.); (J.P.B.); (E.P.G.); (A.I.F.)
| | - Bogdan A. Stoica
- Center for Shock Trauma Anesthesiology Research, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, BRB 6-015, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (O.M.); (J.P.B.); (E.P.G.); (A.I.F.)
- VA Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore VA Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
- Correspondence: (B.S.); (B.A.S.)
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10
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Down-Regulation of miR-23a-3p Mediates Irradiation-Induced Neuronal Apoptosis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103695. [PMID: 32456284 PMCID: PMC7279507 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiation-induced central nervous system toxicity is a significant risk factor for patients receiving cancer radiotherapy. Surprisingly, the mechanisms responsible for the DNA damage-triggered neuronal cell death following irradiation have yet to be deciphered. Using primary cortical neuronal cultures in vitro, we demonstrated that X-ray exposure induces the mitochondrial pathway of intrinsic apoptosis and that miR-23a-3p plays a significant role in the regulation of this process. Primary cortical neurons exposed to irradiation show the activation of DNA-damage response pathways, including the sequential phosphorylation of ATM kinase, histone H2AX, and p53. This is followed by the p53-dependent up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic Bcl2 family molecules, including the BH3-only molecules PUMA, Noxa, and Bim, leading to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) and the release of cytochrome c, which activates caspase-dependent apoptosis. miR-23a-3p, a negative regulator of specific pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family molecules, is rapidly decreased after neuronal irradiation. By increasing the degradation of PUMA and Noxa mRNAs in the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), the administration of the miR-23a-3p mimic inhibits the irradiation-induced up-regulation of Noxa and Puma. These changes result in an attenuation of apoptotic processes such as MOMP, the release of cytochrome c and caspases activation, and a reduction in neuronal cell death. The neuroprotective effects of miR-23a-3p administration may not only involve the direct inhibition of pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 molecules downstream of p53 but also include the attenuation of secondary DNA damage upstream of p53. Importantly, we demonstrated that brain irradiation in vivo results in the down-regulation of miR-23a-3p and the elevation of pro-apoptotic Bcl2-family molecules PUMA, Noxa, and Bax, not only broadly in the cortex and hippocampus, except for Bax, which was up-regulated only in the hippocampus but also selectively in isolated neuronal populations from the irradiated brain. Overall, our data suggest that miR-23a-3p down-regulation contributes to irradiation-induced intrinsic pathways of neuronal apoptosis. These regulated pathways of neurodegeneration may be the target of effective neuroprotective strategies using miR-23a-3p mimics to block their development and increase neuronal survival after irradiation.
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11
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Tan CC, Zhang XY, Tan L, Yu JT. Tauopathies: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 61:487-508. [PMID: 29278892 DOI: 10.3233/jad-170187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Tauopathies are morphologically, biochemically, and clinically heterogeneous neurodegenerative diseases defined by the accumulation of abnormal tau proteins in the brain. There is no effective method to prevent and reverse the tauopathies, but this gloomy picture has been changed by recent research advances. Evidences from genetic studies, experimental animal models, and molecular and cell biology have shed light on the main mechanisms of the diseases. The development of radiology and biochemistry, especially the development of PET imaging, will provide important biomarkers for the clinical diagnosis and treatment. Given the central role of tau in tauopathies, many treatments have constantly emerged, including targeting phosphorylation, targeting aggregation, increasing microtubule stabilization, tau immunization, clearance of tau, anti-inflammatory treatment, and other therapeutics. There is still a long way to go before we obtain drug therapy targeted at multifactor mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Chen Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Xiao-Yan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Lan Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Jin-Tai Yu
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
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12
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Rudobeck E, Bellone JA, Szücs A, Bonnick K, Mehrotra-Carter S, Badaut J, Nelson GA, Hartman RE, Vlkolinský R. Low-dose proton radiation effects in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease - Implications for space travel. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0186168. [PMID: 29186131 PMCID: PMC5706673 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Space radiation represents a significant health risk for astronauts. Ground-based animal studies indicate that space radiation affects neuronal functions such as excitability, synaptic transmission, and plasticity, and it may accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although protons represent the main constituent in the space radiation spectrum, their effects on AD-related pathology have not been tested. We irradiated 3 month-old APP/PSEN1 transgenic (TG) and wild type (WT) mice with protons (150 MeV; 0.1-1.0 Gy; whole body) and evaluated functional and biochemical hallmarks of AD. We performed behavioral tests in the water maze (WM) before irradiation and in the WM and Barnes maze at 3 and 6 months post-irradiation to evaluate spatial learning and memory. We also performed electrophysiological recordings in vitro in hippocampal slices prepared 6 and 9 months post-irradiation to evaluate excitatory synaptic transmission and plasticity. Next, we evaluated amyloid β (Aβ) deposition in the contralateral hippocampus and adjacent cortex using immunohistochemistry. In cortical homogenates, we analyzed the levels of the presynaptic marker synaptophysin by Western blotting and measured pro-inflammatory cytokine levels (TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, CXCL10 and CCL2) by bead-based multiplex assay. TG mice performed significantly worse than WT mice in the WM. Irradiation of TG mice did not affect their behavioral performance, but reduced the amplitudes of population spikes and inhibited paired-pulse facilitation in CA1 neurons. These electrophysiological alterations in the TG mice were qualitatively different from those observed in WT mice, in which irradiation increased excitability and synaptic efficacy. Irradiation increased Aβ deposition in the cortex of TG mice without affecting cytokine levels and increased synaptophysin expression in WT mice (but not in the TG mice). Although irradiation with protons increased Aβ deposition, the complex functional and biochemical results indicate that irradiation effects are not synergistic to AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Rudobeck
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - John A. Bellone
- Department of Psychology, School of Behavioral Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - Attila Szücs
- BioCircuits Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Kristine Bonnick
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - Shalini Mehrotra-Carter
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - Jerome Badaut
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - Gregory A. Nelson
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - Richard E. Hartman
- Department of Psychology, School of Behavioral Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
| | - Roman Vlkolinský
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States of America
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13
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Current Evidence for Developmental, Structural, and Functional Brain Defects following Prenatal Radiation Exposure. Neural Plast 2016; 2016:1243527. [PMID: 27382490 PMCID: PMC4921147 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1243527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ionizing radiation is omnipresent. We are continuously exposed to natural (e.g., radon and cosmic) and man-made radiation sources, including those from industry but especially from the medical sector. The increasing use of medical radiation modalities, in particular those employing low-dose radiation such as CT scans, raises concerns regarding the effects of cumulative exposure doses and the inappropriate utilization of these imaging techniques. One of the major goals in the radioprotection field is to better understand the potential health risk posed to the unborn child after radiation exposure to the pregnant mother, of which the first convincing evidence came from epidemiological studies on in utero exposed atomic bomb survivors. In the following years, animal models have proven to be an essential tool to further characterize brain developmental defects and consequent functional deficits. However, the identification of a possible dose threshold is far from complete and a sound link between early defects and persistent anomalies has not yet been established. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge on brain developmental and persistent defects resulting from in utero radiation exposure and addresses the many questions that still remain to be answered.
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14
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Gibbs KL, Greensmith L, Schiavo G. Regulation of Axonal Transport by Protein Kinases. Trends Biochem Sci 2016; 40:597-610. [PMID: 26410600 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2015.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular transport of organelles, proteins, lipids, and RNA along the axon is essential for neuronal function and survival. This process, called axonal transport, is mediated by two classes of ATP-dependent motors, kinesins, and cytoplasmic dynein, which carry their cargoes along microtubule tracks. Protein kinases regulate axonal transport through direct phosphorylation of motors, adapter proteins, and cargoes, and indirectly through modification of the microtubule network. The misregulation of axonal transport by protein kinases has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several nervous system disorders. Here, we review the role of protein kinases acting directly on axonal transport and discuss how their deregulation affects neuronal function, paving the way for the exploitation of these enzymes as novel drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Gibbs
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, WC1N 3BG London, UK
| | - Linda Greensmith
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, WC1N 3BG London, UK
| | - Giampietro Schiavo
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, WC1N 3BG London, UK.
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15
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Karunamuni R, Bartsch H, White NS, Moiseenko V, Carmona R, Marshall DC, Seibert TM, McDonald CR, Farid N, Krishnan A, Kuperman J, Mell L, Brewer JB, Dale AM, Hattangadi-Gluth JA. Dose-Dependent Cortical Thinning After Partial Brain Irradiation in High-Grade Glioma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2016; 94:297-304. [PMID: 26853338 PMCID: PMC4747044 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2015.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Radiation-induced cognitive deficits may be mediated by tissue damage to cortical regions. Volumetric changes in cortex can be reliably measured using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We used these methods to study the association between radiation therapy (RT) dose and change in cortical thickness in high-grade glioma (HGG) patients. METHODS AND MATERIALS We performed a voxel-wise analysis of MRI from 15 HGG patients who underwent fractionated partial brain RT. Three-dimensional MRI was acquired pre- and 1 year post RT. Cortex was parceled with well-validated segmentation software. Surgical cavities were censored. Each cortical voxel was assigned a change in cortical thickness between time points, RT dose value, and neuroanatomic label by lobe. Effects of dose, neuroanatomic location, age, and chemotherapy on cortical thickness were tested using linear mixed effects (LME) modeling. RESULTS Cortical atrophy was seen after 1 year post RT with greater effects at higher doses. Estimates from LME modeling showed that cortical thickness decreased by -0.0033 mm (P<.001) for every 1-Gy increase in RT dose. Temporal and limbic cortex exhibited the largest changes in cortical thickness per Gy compared to that in other regions (P<.001). Age and chemotherapy were not significantly associated with change in cortical thickness. CONCLUSIONS We found dose-dependent thinning of the cerebral cortex, with varying neuroanatomical regional sensitivity, 1 year after fractionated partial brain RT. The magnitude of thinning parallels 1-year atrophy rates seen in neurodegenerative diseases and may contribute to cognitive decline following high-dose RT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Karunamuni
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Hauke Bartsch
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Nathan S White
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Vitali Moiseenko
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Ruben Carmona
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Deborah C Marshall
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Tyler M Seibert
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Carrie R McDonald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Nikdokht Farid
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Anithapriya Krishnan
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Joshua Kuperman
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Loren Mell
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - James B Brewer
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Anders M Dale
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Jona A Hattangadi-Gluth
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.
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16
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Karunamuni RA, Moore KL, Seibert TM, Li N, White NS, Bartsch H, Carmona R, Marshall D, McDonald CR, Farid N, Krishnan A, Kuperman J, Mell LK, Brewer J, Dale AM, Moiseenko V, Hattangadi-Gluth JA. Radiation sparing of cerebral cortex in brain tumor patients using quantitative neuroimaging. Radiother Oncol 2016; 118:29-34. [PMID: 26806266 PMCID: PMC4764402 DOI: 10.1016/j.radonc.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Neurocognitive decline in brain tumor patients treated with radiotherapy (RT) may be linked to cortical atrophy. We developed models to determine radiation treatment-planning objectives for cortex, which were tested on a sample population to identify the dosimetric cost of cortical sparing. MATERIAL AND METHODS The relationship between the probability of cortical atrophy in fifteen high-grade glioma patients at 1-year post-RT and radiation dose was fit using logistic mixed effects modeling. Cortical sparing was implemented using two strategies: region-specific sparing using model parameters, and non-specific sparing of all normal brain tissue. RESULTS A dose threshold of 28.6 Gy was found to result in a 20% probability of severe atrophy. Average cortical sparing at 30 Gy was greater for region-specific dose avoidance (4.6%) compared to non-specific (3.6%). Cortical sparing resulted in an increase in heterogeneity index of the planning target volume (PTV) with an average increase of 1.9% (region-specific) and 0.9% (non-specific). CONCLUSIONS We found RT doses above 28.6 Gy resulted in a greater than 20% probability of cortical atrophy. Cortical sparing can be achieved using region-specific or non-specific dose avoidance strategies at the cost of an increase in the dose heterogeneity of the PTV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan A Karunamuni
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Kevin L Moore
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Tyler M Seibert
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Nan Li
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Nathan S White
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Hauke Bartsch
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Ruben Carmona
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Deborah Marshall
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Carrie R McDonald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Nikdokht Farid
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Anithapriya Krishnan
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Joshua Kuperman
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Loren K Mell
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - James Brewer
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Anders M Dale
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Vitali Moiseenko
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Jona A Hattangadi-Gluth
- Department of Radiation Medicine and Applied Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, United States.
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17
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Levy Nogueira M, Epelbaum S, Steyaert JM, Dubois B, Schwartz L. Mechanical stress models of Alzheimer's disease pathology. Alzheimers Dement 2015; 12:324-33. [PMID: 26718585 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Extracellular accumulation of amyloid-β protein and intracellular accumulation of tau in brain tissues have been described in animal models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mechanical stress-based diseases of different mechanisms, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI), arterial hypertension (HTN), and normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH). METHODS We provide a brief overview of experimental models of TBI, HTN, and NPH showing features of tau-amyloid pathology, neuroinflammation, and neuronal loss. RESULTS "Alzheimer-like" hallmarks found in these mechanical stress-based models were compared with AD features found in transgenic models. DISCUSSION The goal of this review is, therefore, to build on current concepts of onset and progression of AD lesions. We point to the importance of accumulated mechanical stress in brain as an environmental and endogenous factor that pushes protein deposition and neuronal injury over the disease threshold. We further encourage the development of preventing strategies and drug screening based on mechanical stress models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Levy Nogueira
- Institut de la Mémoire et de la Maladie d'Alzheimer (IM2A), Département de Neurologie, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France; Institut des Neurosciences Translationnelles de Paris (IHU-A-ICM), Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière (ICM), Paris, France; Laboratoire d'informatique (LIX), UMR 7161, Ecole Polytechnique, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France.
| | - Stéphane Epelbaum
- Institut de la Mémoire et de la Maladie d'Alzheimer (IM2A), Département de Neurologie, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France; INSERM, CNRS, UMR-S975, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière (ICM), Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Marc Steyaert
- Laboratoire d'informatique (LIX), UMR 7161, Ecole Polytechnique, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France
| | - Bruno Dubois
- Institut de la Mémoire et de la Maladie d'Alzheimer (IM2A), Département de Neurologie, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France; Institut des Neurosciences Translationnelles de Paris (IHU-A-ICM), Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière (ICM), Paris, France; INSERM, CNRS, UMR-S975, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière (ICM), Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Schwartz
- Laboratoire d'informatique (LIX), UMR 7161, Ecole Polytechnique, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France
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