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Santos AM, Júnior JA, Cézar SV, Araújo AA, Júnior LJ, Aragón DM, Serafini MR. Cyclodextrin inclusion complexes improving antibacterial drug profiles: an update systematic review. Future Microbiol 2023; 18:1363-1379. [PMID: 37910070 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2023-0124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: The study aimed to review experimental models using cyclodextrins to improve antibacterial drugs' physicochemical characteristics and biological activities. Methods: The following terms and their combinations were used: cyclodextrins and antibacterial agents in title or abstract, and the total study search was conducted over a period up to October 2022. The review was carried out using PubMed, Scopus and Embase databases. A total of 1580 studies were identified, of which 27 articles were selected for discussion in this review. Results: The biological results revealed that the antibacterial effect of the inclusion complexes was extensively improved. Cyclodextrins can enhance the therapeutic effects of antibiotics already existing on the market, natural products and synthetic molecules. Conclusion: Overall, CDs as drug-delivery vehicles have been shown to improve antibiotics solubility, stability, and bioavailability, leading to enhanced antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anamaria M Santos
- Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - José Acn Júnior
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe,São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Silvia Vs Cézar
- Department of Pharmacy,Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Adriano As Araújo
- Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe,São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
- Department of Pharmacy,Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Lucindo Jq Júnior
- Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe,São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Diana M Aragón
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
| | - Mairim R Serafini
- Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe,São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
- Department of Pharmacy,Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, 49060-100, Sergipe, Brazil
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Yu Z, Wu T, Liu X, Chen H, Ren C, Zhu L. Resveratrol-Loaded Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine Liposomal Large Porous Microparticle Inhalations for the Treatment of Bacterial Pneumonia Caused by Acinetobacter baumannii. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2023; 36:2-11. [PMID: 36695669 DOI: 10.1089/jamp.2021.0049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Acinetobacter baumannii-mediated bacterial pneumonia is a common disease that is harmful to human health. Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) is the major lipid component of the pulmonary surfactant (PS) found in the alveolar space; the PS helps to keep surface tension low, which allows for improved oxygen delivery. Resveratrol (RE) is a phytoalexin found in plants that is released in response to injury or infection. The therapeutic effect of Re is limited due to its low solubility and bioavailability. In this study, we report pulmonary delivery of Re-loaded DPPC liposomal large porous microparticles (RDLPMs) for treatment of A. baumannii-induced pneumonia. Methods: Novel RDLPMs were prepared by rotary evaporation and a freeze-drying method in this study. RDLPMs were evaluated by the particle size, electric potential, in vitro release, and particle size distribution. A rat model of A. baumannii-mediated pneumonia was established and used for pharmacodynamic evaluations. Results: The Re-loaded DPPC liposomes (RDLs) consisted of Re/DPPC (1:3, mol/mol) and DPPC/cholesterol (3:1, w/w), with a hydration time of 15 minutes. The RDLs had a high encapsulation efficiency of 69.8% ± 1.6%, a mean size of 191.5 ± 4.5 nm, and a high zeta potential of 12.4 ± 1.5 mV. The RDLPMs were composed of mannitol/large porous microparticles/RDLs (1:4:2, w/w/w) and had a loading efficiency of 2.20% ± 0.24%. The RDLPMs had an aerodynamic diameter (2.73 ± 0.65 μm), a good fluidity (28.30° ± 6.13°), and demonstrated high lung deposition (fine particle fraction = 43.33%). Surprisingly, while penicillin showed better microbial inhibition than the RDLPMs and Re groups in vitro, the RDLPMs were more effective in vivo. Conclusion: The RDLPMs showed good powder properties for pulmonary delivery. The RDLPMs may inhibit the nuclear factor kappa-B pathway and downregulate the expression of cytokines downstream of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β. As well as, RDLPMs demonstrated some antibacterial properties against A. baumannii bacteria. Re, when delivered in RDLPMs as a dry powder inhaler, is a promising substitute for antibiotics in the treatment of A. baumannii pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zicheng Yu
- Department of Laboratory, Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Tingting Wu
- Department of Laboratory, Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai United Family Pudong Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjun Chen
- Department of Laboratory, Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chunxia Ren
- Department of Laboratory, Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lifei Zhu
- Department of Laboratory, Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Alkaline tea tree oil nanoemulsion nebulizers for the treatment of pneumonia induced by drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.104047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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4
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Yaqoubi S, Chan HK, Nokhodchi A, Dastmalchi S, Alizadeh AA, Barzegar-Jalali M, Adibkia K, Hamishehkar H. A quantitative approach to predicting lung deposition profiles of pharmaceutical powder aerosols. Int J Pharm 2021; 602:120568. [PMID: 33812969 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Dry powder inhalers (DPI) are widely used systems for pulmonary delivery of therapeutics. The inhalation performance of DPIs is influenced by formulation features, inhaler device and inhalation pattern. The current review presents the affecting factors with great focus on powder characteristics which include particle size, shape, surface, density, hygroscopicity and crystallinity. The properties of a formulation are greatly influenced by a number of physicochemical factors of drug and added excipients. Since available particle engineering techniques result in particles with a set of modifications, it is difficult to distinguish the effect of an individual feature on powder deposition behavior. This necessitates developing a predictive model capable of describing all influential factors on dry powder inhaler delivery. Therefore, in the current study, a model was constructed to correlate the inhaler device properties, inhalation flow rate, particle characteristics and drug/excipient physicochemical properties with the resultant fine particle fraction. The r2 value of established correlation was 0.74 indicating 86% variability in FPF values is explained by the model with the mean absolute errors of 0.22 for the predicted values. The authors believe that this model is capable of predicting the lung deposition pattern of a formulation with an acceptable precision when the type of inhaler device, inhalation flow rate, physicochemical behavior of active and inactive ingredients and the particle characteristics of DPI formulations are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadi Yaqoubi
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hak-Kim Chan
- Advanced Drug Delivery Group, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Ali Nokhodchi
- Pharmaceutics Research Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Siavoush Dastmalchi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Alizadeh
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Barzegar-Jalali
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center, and Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Khosro Adibkia
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hamed Hamishehkar
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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de Assis KMA, de A Rêgo RI, de Melo DF, da Silva LM, Oshiro-Júnior JA, Formiga FR, Pires VC, de Lima ÁAN, Converti A, de L Damasceno BPG. Therapeutic Potential of Melaleuca alternifolia Essential Oil in New Drug Delivery Systems. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 26:4048-4055. [PMID: 32133957 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200305124041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Medicinal plants produce secondary metabolites with special biological activities, which may be used as new therapeutic alternatives. For instance, tea tree essential oil (TTO) was shown to exert antimicrobial, antifungal, anthelmintic, antiviral, anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory activities. Due to their thermal instability, active principles can be easily degraded by physicochemical processes; therefore, they must be protected to increase their time of action and improve their controlled release. The aim of this review is to discuss formulations incorporating encapsulated TTO as the active ingredient. Micro and nanoencapsulated systems proved to be more thermostable than TTO and to exert better antimicrobial, antifungal, antiparasitic and larvicidal effects. Nanoencapsulation also reduced oil toxicity. Emulsified and hybrid systems developed by various methods showed improved repellent, antibacterial, antifungal and anti-inflammatory activities, thereby proving promising for the pharmaceutical industry. Liposomal formulations produced by hydration of lipid films exhibited constant rate of terpinen-4-ol release. In addition, their incorporation into biomaterials, such as sponges, nanofibers and films, showed great potential for treating infections. Mainly due to the advantages of their incorporation into new drug delivery systems over conventional formulations, there is an interest in the development of systems containing TTO as a pharmaceutical ingredient of plant origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karoll M A de Assis
- Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Paraiba (UEPB), Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - Renaly I de A Rêgo
- Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Paraiba (UEPB), Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - Demis F de Melo
- Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Paraiba (UEPB), Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - Laryssa M da Silva
- Laboratory of Development and Characterization of Pharmaceutical Products, Department of Pharmacy, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Paraiba (UEPB), Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - João A Oshiro-Júnior
- Laboratory of Development and Characterization of Pharmaceutical Products, Department of Pharmacy, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Paraiba (UEPB), Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - Fábio R Formiga
- Aggeu Magalhaes Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Vinícius C Pires
- Goncalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Ádley A N de Lima
- Department of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Attilio Converti
- Department of Civil, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Polytechnic School, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Bolívar P G de L Damasceno
- Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, State University of Paraiba (UEPB), Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
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Development of chitosan-coated liposome for pulmonary delivery of N-acetylcysteine. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 156:1455-1463. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.11.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Chemo-photodynamic therapy by pulmonary delivery of gefitinib nanoparticles and 5-aminolevulinic acid for treatment of primary lung cancer of rats. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2020; 31:101807. [PMID: 32404298 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.101807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is a severe disease with high mortality. Chemotherapy is one major treatment for lung cancer. However, systemic chemotherapeutics usually distribute throughout the body without specific lung distribution so that serious side effects are unavoidable. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is occasionally used for lung cancer treatment but photosensitizers are also systemically administered and the bronchoscopic intervention under anesthesia may hurt lung tissues. Here, we combined inhaled chemotherapeutics and photosensitizers for chemo-photodynamic therapy (CPDT) of primary lung cancer of rats with external laser light irradiation. Gefitinib PLGA nanoparticles (GNPs) were prepared. The anti-cancer effects of GNPs and/or a common photosensitizer 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) were explored on A549 cells (adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells) and primary lung cancer rats after intratracheal administration. External light irradiation was applied due to its higher safety compared to internal light irradiation that may result in injuries after a laser optic fiber was intubated into the lung. The remarkable synergistic effect of CPDT was confirmed although the single therapies were also effective, where the high anti-lung cancer effects were shown and some typical lung cancer markers, including CD31, VEGF, NF-κB p65 and Bcl-2, significantly decreased. Moreover, the treatments attenuated inflammation with the downregulation of TNF-α. The combination of pulmonary drug delivery and chemo-photodynamic therapy is a promising strategy for treatment of lung cancer.
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Zhang T, Wang R, Li M, Bao J, Chen Y, Ge Y, Jin Y. Comparative study of intratracheal and oral gefitinib for the treatment of primary lung cancer. Eur J Pharm Sci 2020; 149:105352. [PMID: 32315772 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2020.105352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Oral gefitinib tablets are widely applied for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) though its broad distribution in the body may result in weak therapeutic efficiency and undesired side effects. Here, liposomal gefitinib dry powder inhalers (LGDs) were prepared using the injection-lyophilization method. LGDs were rough porous particles under a scanning electron microscope, which can be rapidly rehydrated to liposomes. LGDs and gefitinib powders were separately intratracheally (i.t.) administered into the lungs of primary lung cancer rats, while powdered gefitinib tablets were orally administered. Gefitinib was rapidly absorbed from the lung after i.t. administration of LGDs. The maximal gefitinib concentration in the circulation and the area under curve (AUC) of i.t. LGDs were higher than those of i.t. gefitinib powders and oral gefitinib. More importantly, much higher concentration and longer retention of gefitinib in the lung were shown after i.t. administration of LGDs and gefitinib powders but remarkably less drug distribution in the liver compared to oral gefitinib. LGDs showed higher therapeutic effect on rat primary lung cancer than i.t. gefitinib powders and oral gefitinib with reduction of inflammation, weak lung injury, and high apoptosis. Combination of inhalation and liposomes of anticancer drugs is a promising strategy for treatment of primary lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongtong Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230001, China; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Miao Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Jianwei Bao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, China
| | - Yanming Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China
| | - Yuanyuan Ge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230001, China
| | - Yiguang Jin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China; Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230001, China; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
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Yu Z, Liu X, Chen H, Zhu L. Naringenin-Loaded Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine Phytosome Dry Powders for Inhaled Treatment of Acute Lung Injury. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2020; 33:194-204. [PMID: 32176552 DOI: 10.1089/jamp.2019.1569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Acute lung injury is a severe respiratory disorder characterized by overwhelming lung inflammation. Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) is the major lipid component of pulmonary surfactant, which here acts as a carrier delivery system for drugs, while also preserving surface tension in the lung. The clinical development of naringenin (NG) is limited by its low solubility and bioavailability. Methods: Novel NG-loaded DPPC phytosomes for dry powder inhalation (NPDPIs) were prepared by solvent evaporation and a freeze-drying method. The particle size, electric potential, in vitro release, and lung deposition were characterized. A rat model of acute lung injury was established and used for pharmacodynamic evaluations. Results: A mixture of NG/DPPC 1:2 (w/w) formed stable phytosomes with the addition of appropriate ethanol. The phytosomes had high complexation efficiency (92.1% ± 1.87%) with NG, a small mean size (150.8 ± 6.9 nm), and a high zeta potential (20.97 ± 0.55 mV). NPDPIs composed of mannitol/DPPC/NG (4:2:1, w/w/w) presented a satisfactory appearance, good fluidity, quick reconstitution to naringenin phytosomes (NGPs), and small (167.2 nm) reconstituted NGPs. The aerodynamic diameter (12.48 μm) and fine particle fraction (23.90%) were suitable for pulmonary delivery by inhalation. The in vivo NPDPIs demonstrated efficacy in a rat model of acute lung injury. NPDPIs significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of P38 in the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and suppressed oxidative stress. Surprisingly, the DPPC vehicle exhibited potential effects against acute lung injury by protecting respiratory function. Conclusions: NPDPIs were developed for sustained drug release, promoting pulmonary bioavailability of drug and protecting against acid-induced acute lung injury in rats by pulmonary delivery. NPDPIs are a promising dry powder inhaler for clinical application in acute lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zicheng Yu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai United Family Pudong Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjun Chen
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lifei Zhu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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High Potency of Melaleuca alternifolia Essential Oil against Multi-Drug Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23102584. [PMID: 30304862 PMCID: PMC6222846 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23102584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Herein, an extended investigation of Tea tree oil (TTO) against a number of multi-drug resistant (MDR) microorganisms in liquid and vapor phases is reported. Methods: The activity of TTO was tested against methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), Escherichia coli, and clinical strains of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum beta lactamases producer carbapenem-sensitive Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-CS-Kp), carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (CR-Kp), Acinetobacter baumannii (CR-Ab), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CR-Pa). Minimal inhibitory/bactericidal concentrations (MIC/MBCs) and synergistic activity between TTO and different antimicrobials were determined. In the vapor assay (VP), TTO-impregnated discs were placed on the lid of a petri dish and incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. Results: TTO showed a potent bactericidal activity against all the tested microorganisms. TTO in combination with each reference antimicrobial showed a high level of synergism at sub-inhibitory concentrations, particularly with oxacillin (OXA) against MRSA. The VP assay showed high activity of TTO against CR-Ab. Conclusion: Evaluation of in-vitro activity clearly indicated TTO as a potential effective antimicrobial treatment either alone or in association with known drugs against MDR. Therefore, TTO could represent the basis for a possible role in non-conventional regimens against S. aureus and Gram-negative MDR. TTO in VP might represent a promising option for local therapy of pneumonia caused by CR-Ab.
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