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Lau CL, Mills DJ, Mayfield H, Gyawali N, Johnson BJ, Lu H, Allel K, Britton PN, Ling W, Moghaddam T, Furuya-Kanamori L. A decision support tool for risk-benefit analysis of Japanese encephalitis vaccine in travellers. J Travel Med 2023; 30:taad113. [PMID: 37602668 DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taad113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During pre-travel consultations, clinicians and travellers face the challenge of weighing the risks verus benefits of Japanese encephalitis (JE) vaccination due to the high cost of the vaccine, low incidence in travellers (~1 in 1 million), but potentially severe consequences (~30% case-fatality rate). Personalised JE risk assessment based on the travellers' demographics and travel itinerary is challenging using standard risk matrices. We developed an interactive digital tool to estimate risks of JE infection and severe health outcomes under different scenarios to facilitate shared decision-making between clinicians and travellers. METHODS A Bayesian network (conditional probability) model risk-benefit analysis of JE vaccine in travellers was developed. The model considers travellers' characteristics (age, sex, co-morbidities), itinerary (destination, departure date, duration, setting of planned activities) and vaccination status to estimate the risks of JE infection, the development of symptomatic disease (meningitis, encephalitis), clinical outcomes (hospital admission, chronic neurological complications, death) and adverse events following immunization. RESULTS In low-risk travellers (e.g. to urban areas for <1 month), the risk of developing JE and dying is low (<1 per million) irrespective of the destination; thus, the potential impact of JE vaccination in reducing the risk of clinical outcomes is limited. In high-risk travellers (e.g. to rural areas in high JE incidence destinations for >2 months), the risk of developing symptomatic disease and mortality is estimated at 9.5 and 1.4 per million, respectively. JE vaccination in this group would significantly reduce the risk of symptomatic disease and mortality (by ~80%) to 1.9 and 0.3 per million, respectively. CONCLUSION The JE tool may assist decision-making by travellers and clinicians and could increase JE vaccine uptake. The tool will be updated as additional evidence becomes available. Future work needs to evaluate the usability of the tool. The interactive, scenario-based, personalised JE vaccine risk-benefit tool is freely available on www.VaxiCal.com.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen L Lau
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
- Dr Deb The Travel Doctor, Travel Medicine Alliance, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Deborah J Mills
- Dr Deb The Travel Doctor, Travel Medicine Alliance, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Helen Mayfield
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Narayan Gyawali
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Brian J Johnson
- Mosquito Control Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Hongen Lu
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Kasim Allel
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Philip N Britton
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Children's Hospital Westmead, Westmead, NSW, Australia
- Child and Adolescent Health and Sydney ID, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Weiping Ling
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Tina Moghaddam
- School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Science, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Luis Furuya-Kanamori
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia
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Cole E, Boast A, Yiu EM, Kornberg AJ, Jadhav T, Mignone C, Abo YN, Britton PN, Osowicki J, Macdonald-Laurs E. Geographic Expansion of Japanese Encephalitis Virus to Australia: Neuroinflammatory Sequelae and Consideration of Immunomodulation. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2023; 42:e173-e176. [PMID: 36795573 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000003861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
We report a child from Southern Australia (New South Wales) who presented during a La Niña event with encephalopathy and acute flaccid paralysis. Magnetic resonance imaging suggested Japanese encephalitis (JE). Steroids and intravenous immunoglobulin did not improve symptoms. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) resulted in rapid improvement and tracheostomy decannulation. Our case illustrates the complex pathophysiology of JE, its' geographic expansion into Southern Australia and potential use of TPE for neuroinflammatory sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alison Boast
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne Victoria, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Eppie M Yiu
- From the Department of Neurology
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne Victoria, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Yara-Natalie Abo
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne Victoria, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Microbiology, Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Philip N Britton
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
- Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Joshua Osowicki
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne Victoria, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emma Macdonald-Laurs
- From the Department of Neurology
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne Victoria, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Janatpour ZC, Boatwright MA, Yousif SM, Bonilla MF, Fitzpatrick KA, Hills SL, Decker CF. Japanese encephalitis in a U.S. traveler returning from Vietnam, 2022. Travel Med Infect Dis 2023; 52:102536. [PMID: 36603728 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2022.102536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - M Andrew Boatwright
- Infectious Diseases Service, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, USA
| | - Sara M Yousif
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Maria-Fernanda Bonilla
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Susan L Hills
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Catherine F Decker
- Department of Medicine, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, USA; Infectious Diseases Service, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, USA; Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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A need to raise the bar - A systematic review of temporal trends in diagnostics for Japanese encephalitis virus infection, and perspectives for future research. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 95:444-456. [PMID: 32205287 PMCID: PMC7294235 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) remains a leading cause of neurological infection in Asia. A systematic review identified 20,212 published human cases of laboratory-confirmed JEV infections from 205 studies. 15,167 (75%) of cases were confirmed with the lowest confidence diagnostic test, i.e., level 3 or 4, or level 4. Only 109 (53%) of the studies reported contemporaneous testing for dengue-specific antibodies. A fundamental pre-requisite for the control of JE is lacking — that of a simple and specific diagnostic procedure that can be adapted for point-of-care tests and readily used throughout JE endemic regions of the world.
Objective Japanese encephalitis virus infection (JE) remains a leading cause of neurological disease in Asia, mainly involving individuals living in remote areas with limited access to treatment centers and diagnostic facilities. Laboratory confirmation is fundamental for the justification and implementation of vaccination programs. We reviewed the literature on historical developments and current diagnostic capability worldwide, to identify knowledge gaps and instill urgency to address them. Methods Searches were performed in Web of Science and PubMed using the term 'Japanese encephalitis' up to 13th October 2019. Studies reporting laboratory-confirmed symptomatic JE cases in humans were included, and data on details of diagnostic tests were extracted. A JE case was classified according to confirmatory levels (Fischer et al., 2008; Campbell et al., 2011; Pearce et al., 2018; Heffelfinger et al., 2017), where level 1 represented the highest level of confidence. Findings 20,212 published JE cases were identified from 205 studies. 15,167 (75%) of these positive cases were confirmed with the lowest-confidence diagnostic tests (level 3 or 4, or level 4). Only 109 (53%) of the studies reported contemporaneous testing for dengue-specific antibodies. Conclusion A fundamental pre-requisite for the control of JEV is lacking — that of a simple and specific diagnostic procedure that can be adapted for point-of-care tests and readily used throughout JE-endemic regions of the world.
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Hills SL, Walter EB, Atmar RL, Fischer M. Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep 2019; 68:1-33. [PMID: 31518342 PMCID: PMC6659993 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.rr6802a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This report updates the 2010 recommendations from the CDC Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) regarding prevention of Japanese encephalitis (JE) among U.S. travelers and laboratory workers (Fischer M, Lindsey N, Staples JE, Hills S. Japanese encephalitis vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2010;59[No. RR-1]). The report summarizes the epidemiology of JE, describes the JE vaccine that is licensed and available in the United States, and provides recommendations for its use among travelers and laboratory workers.JE virus, a mosquitoborne flavivirus, is the most common vaccine-preventable cause of encephalitis in Asia. JE occurs throughout most of Asia and parts of the western Pacific. Approximately 20%-30% of patients die, and 30%-50% of survivors have neurologic, cognitive, or behavioral sequelae. No antiviral treatment is available.Inactivated Vero cell culture-derived JE vaccine (Ixiaro [JE-VC]) is the only JE vaccine that is licensed and available in the United States. In 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) licensed JE-VC for use in persons aged ≥17 years; in 2013, licensure was extended to include children aged ≥2 months.Most travelers to countries where the disease is endemic are at very low risk for JE. However, some travelers are at increased risk for infection on the basis of their travel plans. Factors that increase the risk for JE virus exposure include 1) traveling for a longer period; 2) travel during the JE virus transmission season; 3) spending time in rural areas; 4) participating in extensive outdoor activities; and 5) staying in accommodations without air conditioning, screens, or bed nets. All travelers to countries where JE is endemic should be advised to take precautions to avoid mosquito bites to reduce the risk for JE and other vectorborne diseases. For some persons who might be at increased risk for JE, the vaccine can further reduce the risk for infection. The decision about whether to vaccinate should be individualized and consider the 1) risks related to the specific travel itinerary, 2) likelihood of future travel to countries where JE is endemic, 3) high morbidity and mortality of JE, 4) availability of an effective vaccine, 5) possibility (but low probability) of serious adverse events after vaccination, and 6) the traveler's personal perception and tolerance of risk.JE vaccine is recommended for persons moving to a JE-endemic country to take up residence, longer-term (e.g., ≥1 month) travelers to JE-endemic areas, and frequent travelers to JE-endemic areas. JE vaccine also should be considered for shorter-term (e.g., <1 month) travelers with an increased risk for JE on the basis of planned travel duration, season, location, activities, and accommodations and for travelers to JE-endemic areas who are uncertain about their specific travel duration, destinations, or activities. JE vaccine is not recommended for travelers with very low-risk itineraries, such as shorter-term travel limited to urban areas or outside of a well-defined JE virus transmission season.
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Shin ES, Park O, Kong IS. Review of the Incidence of Japanese Encephalitis in Foreign-Born and Korean Nationals Living in the Republic of Korea, 2007-2016. Osong Public Health Res Perspect 2018; 9:126-129. [PMID: 30023158 PMCID: PMC6037399 DOI: 10.24171/j.phrp.2018.9.3.08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The Japanese encephalitis (JE) vaccine was introduced to the national immunization program in 1985, which has led to a dramatic decrease in the number of reported cases, but JE continues to occur in foreign nationals residing in or traveling to Korea. Although the incidence is low, this study demonstrated that more Koreans were infected with JE than foreign-born expatriates. The incidence rates of Korean-born nationals were between 0.01 and 0.08 cases per 100,000. In contrast, the incidence rates of foreign-born nationals ranged between 0 and 0.26 cases per 100,000. The incidence rates clearly showed that foreign-born expatriates were more at risk, which underscores the importance of vaccination. We recommend heightened surveillance among JE-susceptible individuals and promote vaccination among foreign-born nationals living in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Een-Suk Shin
- Division of Risk Assessment & International Cooperation, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, Korea
| | - Ok Park
- Division of Risk Assessment & International Cooperation, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, Korea
| | - In-Sik Kong
- Division of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Control and National Immunization Program, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, Korea
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We examine the present global burden of Japanese encephalitis (JE) in endemic populations, summarize published cases in travelers since 2009, examine current guidelines for vaccination for international travelers, and consider challenges in prevention of this vector-borne disease. RECENT FINDINGS We identified 11 JE cases in travelers that were published in peer-reviewed literature since 2009. JE incidence in endemic countries appears to be declining but the number of JE cases reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) varied from estimates derived from other published reports based on serosurveys or sentinel surveillance. Current JE vaccines appear to be safe and are not associated with delayed hypersensitivity in contrast to the older mouse brain vaccine. Given differences between WHO-reported cases and local surveillance data, future research on true incidence is needed. Regular assessment will inform JE risk in travelers. National and international guidelines on JE vaccination varied; we suggest areas for improvement.
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Connor B, Bunn WB. The changing epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis and New data: the implications for New recommendations for Japanese encephalitis vaccine. TROPICAL DISEASES TRAVEL MEDICINE AND VACCINES 2017; 3:14. [PMID: 28883984 PMCID: PMC5537987 DOI: 10.1186/s40794-017-0057-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The epidemiology of Japanese Encephalitis and risk to the traveler has changed and continues to evolve. The spread of Japanese Encephalitis virus into new environments, changes in agricultural practice and animal vectors, climate change, peri-urban growth, changes in international travel to Asia, personal risk factors, mosquito vector free transmission, interactions with other flaviviruses and better information on infections without encephalitis and other factors make Japanese Encephalitis an underappreciated risk. There has also been a change in the incidence of Japanese Encephalitis cases that questions the current travel duration and geographic based recommendations. A safe, effective vaccine (Ixiaro) that may be administered in a short course regimen is now available in the United States without the risks of the previous vaccine. However, the vaccine is significantly underutilized. These changes in the epidemiology and new data on the risks of the Japanese Encephalitis virus require a review of the practice guidelines and expert recommendations that do not reflect the current state of knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Connor
- The New York Center for Travel and Tropical Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 110 East 55th Street, 16th Floor, New York, NY 10022 USA
| | - William B Bunn
- Medical University of South Carolina, University of Illinois at Chicago School of Public Health, Chicago, USA
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Eick-Cost AA, Hu Z, Klein TA, Putnak RJ, Jarman RG. Seroconversion to Japanese Encephalitis Virus Among U.S. Infantry Forces in Korea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93:1052-4. [PMID: 26240157 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is endemic in the Republic of Korea (ROK), posing a medical threat to more than 29,000 U.S. Forces military personnel currently deployed in the ROK. The objective of this study was to provide data on the risk of JEV exposure among U.S. Forces in the ROK. One thousand U.S. Army Soldiers were randomly selected for the study from the cohort of infantry Soldiers deployed in the ROK for a period of at least 330 days from 2008 to 2011. Pre- and post-deployment serum specimens were tested for the presence of JEV antibodies by plaque reduction neutralization test. A total of 2/1,000 (0.2%) U.S. Army Soldiers post-deployment specimens tested positive for JEV antibody. Results from the pre-deployment specimens indicated one true seroconversion and one with titers suggestive of a JEV infection. These results indicate a low, but nonzero risk of JEV exposure among U.S. Army Soldiers in the ROK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelia A Eick-Cost
- Epidemiology and Analysis Division, Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Force Health Protection and Preventive Medicine, 65th Medical Brigade, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Viral Disease Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Zheng Hu
- Epidemiology and Analysis Division, Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Force Health Protection and Preventive Medicine, 65th Medical Brigade, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Viral Disease Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Terry A Klein
- Epidemiology and Analysis Division, Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Force Health Protection and Preventive Medicine, 65th Medical Brigade, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Viral Disease Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Robert J Putnak
- Epidemiology and Analysis Division, Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Force Health Protection and Preventive Medicine, 65th Medical Brigade, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Viral Disease Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Richard G Jarman
- Epidemiology and Analysis Division, Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Force Health Protection and Preventive Medicine, 65th Medical Brigade, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Viral Disease Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
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Erra EO, Kantele A. The Vero cell-derived, inactivated, SA14-14-2 strain-based vaccine (Ixiaro) for prevention of Japanese encephalitis. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:1167-79. [PMID: 26162529 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1061939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
With an estimated 68,000 cases each year, Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Vaccination against the disease is recommended for endemic populations and also for travelers at risk. Recently, a Vero cell-derived, inactivated, SA14-14-2 strain-based JE vaccine (JE-VC) became available for travelers from non-endemic regions, replacing the traditional mouse brain-derived vaccines. First licensed in 2009, JE-VC is currently available in Europe, the USA, Canada, Australia and several other countries. In 2013, the vaccine was approved by the European Medicines Agency and the US Food and Drug Administration for use in children. This review summarizes current data on the immunogenicity, safety and clinical use of JE-VC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina O Erra
- Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Steffen R, Behrens RH, Hill DR, Greenaway C, Leder K. Vaccine-preventable travel health risks: what is the evidence--what are the gaps? J Travel Med 2015; 22:1-12. [PMID: 25378212 DOI: 10.1111/jtm.12171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 08/02/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Existing travel health guidelines are based on a variety of data with underpinning evidence ranging from high-quality randomized controlled trials to best estimates from expert opinion. For strategic guidance and to set overall priorities, data about average risk are useful. The World Health Organization (WHO) plans to base future editions of "International Travel and Health" on its new "Handbook for Guideline Development." METHODS Based on a systematic search in PubMed, the existing evidence and quality of data on vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) risks in travelers was examined and essentials of vaccine efficacy were briefly reviewed. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) framework was used to evaluate the quality of the data. RESULTS Moderate-quality data to determine the risk of VPD exist on those that are frequently imported, whereas in most others the level of confidence with existing data is low or very low. CONCLUSIONS In order for the WHO to produce graded risk statements in the updated version of "International Travel and Health," major investment of time plus additional high-quality, generalizable risk data are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Steffen
- Department of Public Health, Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, University of Zurich, WHO Collaborating Centre for Traveller's Health, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
The list of emerging and reemerging pathogens that cause neurologic disease is expanding. Various factors, including population growth and a rise in international travel, have contributed to the spread of pathogens to previously nonendemic regions. Recent advances in diagnostic methods have led to the identification of novel pathogens responsible for infections of the central nervous system. Furthermore, new issues have arisen surrounding established infections, particularly in an increasingly immunocompromised population due to advances in the treatment of rheumatologic disease and in transplant medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicia C Chow
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Carol A Glaser
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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