Assessing the activity pattern overlap among leopards ( Panthera pardus ), potential prey and competitors in a complex landscape in Tanzania

Exploring temporal activity of dholes, their prey, and competitors in East Java, Indonesia

Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are endangered large carnivores found in scattered populations in Asia. One of the main threats to dholes is the decreasing prey availability throughout their distribution range. In the present study, we used camera trap data collected over 6 years to investigate the temporal activity patterns of dholes and their putative prey species in Baluran National Park in Java, Indonesia. We also explored the overlap in activity between dholes and the park's other remaining large carnivore the Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), as well as humans. Furthermore, we investigated potential differences in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming in pairs or alone. We found a high temporal overlap between dholes and their wild ungulate prey species (ranging from Δ = 0.66-0.90), with the lowest overlap observed between dholes and bantengs (Bos javanicus) (Δ = 0.66), and the highest between dholes and muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak) (Δ = 0.90). A very low overlap was found between dholes and domestic cattle (Bos indicus) (Δ = 0.27) whereas a moderately high overlap was found between dholes and leopards (Δ = 0.70) and dholes and humans (Δ = 0.62). We found a significant difference in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming alone or in pairs (Δ = 0.78, p = .01). Single/pairs of dholes were more active both during the day and at night, whereas packs were predominantly active around sunrise and sunset. The high overlap with humans potentially has a negative effect on dhole activity, particularly for dispersing individuals, and the low overlap with domestic species questions the extent to which dholes are considered to predate on them.

Lion lords and sharing hyaenas: Carnivore guild dynamics around elephant carcasses

Megaherbivore carcasses represent sporadic but energetically rewarding resources for carnivores, offering a unique opportunity to study coexistence dynamics between facultative scavengers. South African fenced protected areas, such as Madikwe Game Reserve (Madikwe hereafter), host viable populations of large carnivores and high densities of elephants, Loxodonta africana. However, high carnivore densities can lead to potentially fatal interspecific encounters and increased competition, particularly around high-quality trophic resources. This study explores the temporal partitioning and co-detection strategies of carnivores at six elephant carcasses in Madikwe, aiming to understand how the increased carrion biomass available at elephant carcasses influences coexistence dynamics. Camera traps were deployed to monitor carcasses during two periods (2019 and 2020), revealing occurrences of six carnivore species. Carnivores, particularly black-backed jackals, Lupulella mesomelas, (hereafter jackal), lions, Panthera leo, and spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta, comprised 56.7% of carcass observations, highlighting their pivotal roles in scavenging dynamics. Pairwise co-detection analysis demonstrated consistent association and shared peak activity periods between jackals and spotted hyaenas, indicating potential resource sharing. However, the minimal co-detection rates between lions and other carnivores highlight their resource domination. There was some evidence of temporal partitioning between carnivores, with most species exhibiting earlier peaks in nocturnal activity to avoid temporal overlap with lions. This study emphasises the importance of elephant carcasses in the diet of multiple species and coexistence techniques utilised to exploit this ephemeral resource. As fenced protected areas become crucial for conserving intact carnivore guilds globally, further research into carnivore behavioural adaptations at carcasses is recommended to shed light on their coexistence strategies.

Facilitation of a free-roaming apex predator in working lands: evaluating factors that influence leopard spatial dynamics and prey availability in a South African biodiversity hotspot

Apex predators ideally require vast intact spaces that support sufficient prey abundances to sustain them. In a developing world, however, it is becoming extremely difficult to maintain large enough areas to facilitate apex predators outside of protected regions. Free-roaming leopards (Panthera pardus) are the last remaining apex predator in the Greater Cape Floristic Region, South Africa, and face a multitude of threats attributable to competition for space and resources with humans. Using camera-trap data, we investigated the influence of anthropogenic land modification on leopards and the availability of their natural prey species in two contrasting communities-primarily protected (Cederberg) and agriculturally transformed (Piketberg). Potential prey species composition and diversity were determined, to indicate prey availability in each region. Factors influencing spatial utilisation by leopards and their main prey species were also assessed. Estimated potential prey species richness (Cederberg = 27, Piketberg = 26) and diversity indices (Cederberg-H' = 2.64, Ds = 0.90; Piketberg-H' = 2.46, Ds = 0.89), supported by both the Jaccard's Index (J = 0.73) and Sørensen's Coefficient (CC = 0.85), suggested high levels of similarity across the two regions. Main leopard prey species were present in both regions, but their relative abundances differed. Grey rhebok, klipspringer, and rock hyrax were more abundant in the Cederberg, while Cape grysbok, Cape porcupine, chacma baboon, and common duiker were more abundant in Piketberg. Leopards persisted across the agriculturally transformed landscape despite these differences. Occupancy modelling revealed that the spatial dynamics of leopards differed between the two regions, except for both populations preferring areas further away from human habitation. Overall, anthropogenic factors played a greater role in affecting spatial utilisation by leopards and their main prey species in the transformed region, whereas environmental factors had a stronger influence in the protected region. We argue that greater utilisation of alternative main prey species to those preferred in the protected region, including livestock, likely facilitates the persistence of leopards in the transformed region, and believe that this has further implications for human-wildlife conflict. Our study provides a baseline understanding of the potential direct and indirect impacts of agricultural landscape transformation on the behaviour of leopards and shows that heavily modified lands have the potential to facilitate mammalian diversity, including apex predators. We iterate that conservation measures for apex predators should be prioritised where they are present on working lands, and encourage the collaborative development of customised, cost-effective, multi-species conflict management approaches that facilitate coexistence.

Impact of artificial waterholes on temporal partitioning in a carnivore guild: a comparison of activity patterns at artificial waterholes to roads and trails

Temporal partitioning in large carnivores have previously been found to be one of the main factors enabling co-existence. While activity patterns have been investigated separately at artificial waterholes and e.g., game trails, simultaneous comparative analyses of activity patterns at artificial waterholes and game trails have not been attempted. In this study, camera trap data from Maremani Nature Reserve was used to investigate whether temporal partitioning existed in a carnivore guild of four species (spotted hyena, leopard, brown hyena and African wild dog). Specifically, we investigated temporal partitioning at artificial waterholes and on roads and trails an average of 1,412 m away from an artificial waterhole. Activity patterns for the same species at artificial waterholes and roads/game trails were also compared. We found no significant differences in temporal activity between species at artificial waterholes. Temporal partitioning on game trails and roads was only found between spotted hyena (nocturnal) and African wild dog (crepuscular). Between nocturnal species (spotted hyena and leopard) no temporal partitioning was exhibited. Only African wild dog exhibited significantly different activity patterns at waterholes and roads/game trails. This indicates artificial waterholes may be a location for conflict in a carnivore guild. Our study highlights the impact of anthropogenic landscape changes and management decisions on the temporal axis of carnivores. More data on activity patterns at natural water sources such as ephemeral pans are needed to properly assess the effect of artificial waterholes on temporal partitioning in a carnivore guild.

Spatiotemporal overlap between Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus tianschanicus) and sympatric mammalian species on Jeju Island, South Korea

Analysis of spatiotemporal partitioning is pivotal to shed light on interspecific coexistence. Most research efforts have involved large-sized carnivores and their prey species, whereas little attention has been given to ungulate in the predator-free ecosystems. We assessed seasonal activity patterns and spatiotemporal overlap among the Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus tianschanicus) and its sympatric species through camera-trapping from October 2017 and September 2020 in Jeju Island, South Korea. Trap events when compared seasonally, roe deer show higher activity in summer (34.9%), a pronounced low in winter (14.1%), and a moderate in autumn (23.8%) and in spring (26.9%). Roe deer exhibited bimodal activity patterns and had the highest spatiotemporal overlap and composite score with sika deer (Cervus nippon). Our results are among the few available data on the interaction of sympatric species and suggest strong overlapping with sika deer. This study provides important insight into species coexistence in predator-free habitats, which would be important for management initiatives.

Seasonal variation in daily activity patterns of snow leopards and their prey

The daily and seasonal activity patterns of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are poorly understood, limiting our ecological understanding and hampering our ability to mitigate threats such as climate change and retaliatory killing in response to livestock predation. We fitted GPS-collars with activity loggers to snow leopards, Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica: their main prey), and domestic goats (Capra hircus: common livestock prey) in Mongolia between 2009 and 2020. Snow leopards were facultatively nocturnal with season-specific crepuscular activity peaks: seasonal activity shifted towards night-sunrise during summer, and day-sunset in winter. Snow leopard activity was in contrast to their prey, which were consistently diurnal. We interpret these results in relation to: (1) darkness as concealment for snow leopards when stalking in an open landscape (nocturnal activity), (2) low-intermediate light preferred for predatory ambush in steep rocky terrain (dawn and dusk activity), and (3) seasonal activity adjustments to facilitate thermoregulation in an extreme environment. These patterns suggest that to minimise human-wildlife conflict, livestock should be corralled at night and dawn in summer, and dusk in winter. It is likely that climate change will intensify seasonal effects on the snow leopard's daily temporal niche for thermoregulation in the future.

Using camera trap bycatch data to assess habitat use and the influence of human activity on African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kasungu National Park, Malawi

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are increasingly exposed to high levels of human disturbance and are threatened by poaching and human–elephant conflict. As anthropogenic pressures continue to increase, both inside and outside protected areas, understanding elephant behavioural responses to human activity is required for future conservation management. Here, we use bycatch data from camera trap surveys to provide inferences on elephant habitat use and temporal activity in Kasungu National Park (KNP), Malawi. The KNP elephant population has declined by ~ 95% since the late 1970s, primarily because of intensive poaching, and information on elephant ecology and behaviour can assist in the species’ recovery. Using occupancy modelling, we show that proximity to water is the primary driver of elephant habitat use in KNP, with sites closer to water having a positive effect on elephant site use. Our occupancy results suggest that elephants do not avoid sites of higher human activity, while results from temporal activity models show that elephants avoid peak times of human activity and exhibit primarily nocturnal behaviour when using the KNP road network. As key park infrastructure is located near permanent water sources, elephant spatiotemporal behaviour may represent a trade-off between resource utilisation and anthropogenic-risk factors, with temporal partitioning used to reduce encounter rates. Increased law enforcement activity around permanent water sources could help to protect the KNP elephant population during the dry season. Our findings highlight that camera trap bycatch data can be a useful tool for the conservation management of threatened species beyond the initial scope of research.

Seasonal and diel activity patterns of small mammal guilds on the Pannonian Steppe: a step towards a better understanding of the ecology of the endangered Hungarian birch mouse (Sicista trizona) (Sminthidae, Rodentia)

Temporal activity differences facilitate species’ coexistence by reducing interspecific competition. Such patterns can be studied via diel activity analysis, but obtaining data in cryptic mammals is difficult. We investigated the annual and diel activity pattern of such a small mammal, the endangered Hungarian birch mouse (Sicista trizona trizona), in its only known habitat. We employ trail cameras for the first time to reveal the diel and annual activity of a sminthid species. Data acquisition included the spring and summer seasons between 2019 and 2022 and was extended to detect the activity overlaps with other common coexisting rodents and shrews. The diel activity results rely on 581 detections of S. trizona over 5670 trap-nights of camera trap deployment characterising also activity pattern of the small mammal community in this Central European grassland ecosystem. S. trizona was not recorded during the day but was active at dawn and night, and in comparison with other coexisting species, its activity level was high. The presumed cold sensitivity was not confirmed as we detected activity at −6 °C. Diel activity peaked in early May in the mating season. Although the diel activity pattern of co-occurring small mammal species was also nocturnal, activity overlaps were relatively high suggesting that temporal niche partitioning is limited within the habitat. Our work provides the first insight into temporal overlaps within a small mammal community in a natural European grassland, moreover, also the first documented research on the activity pattern of a sminthid in its natural habitat.

Spatiotemporal relationships of coyotes and free-ranging domestic cats as indicators of conflict in Culver City, California

As habitat generalists, urban coyote (Canis latrans) populations often utilize an abundance of diverse food sources in cities. Within southern California, domestic cats (Felis catus) comprise a higher proportion of coyote diets than in other studied urban areas throughout the United States. However, it is unclear which ecological factors contribute to higher rates of cat depredation by coyotes in this region. While previous research suggests that coyote presence may have a negative effect on free-ranging domestic cat distributions, few studies have determined whether urban green spaces affect coyote or free-ranging domestic cat occurrence and activity within a predominantly urbanized landscape. We placed 20 remote wildlife cameras across a range of green spaces and residential sites in Culver City, California, an area of Los Angeles County experiencing pronounced coyote-domestic cat conflict. Using data collected across 6 months from 2019-2020, we assessed the influence of green space and prey species (i.e., cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.) and domestic cats) on coyote habitat use and activity. Coyotes exhibited a preference for sites with higher amounts of green space, while domestic cat habitat use was high throughout our study region. Although cottontail rabbit habitat use was also highly associated with urban green space, neither cottontails nor domestic cats appeared to temporally overlap significantly with coyotes. Unlike other cities where coyotes and domestic cats exhibit strong habitat partitioning across the landscape, domestic cats and coyotes spatially overlapped in green space fragments throughout Culver City. We suggest that this pattern of overlap may be responsible for the frequent cases of domestic cat depredation by coyotes in Culver City.

Alien versus alien: spatiotemporal overlaps among introduced ungulates in a Mediterranean island ecosystem

Assessing the spatiotemporal behaviour of alien species is pivotal to designing effective management plans. Interspecific niche partitioning among ungulates is reported as a strategy to avoid direct interactions. The Mediterranean mouflon and wild boar are two ungulates introduced to Elba island for hunting and aesthetic purposes. We used intensive camera trapping to test whether species occupancy and temporal activity rhythms would vary in response to the presence or absence of the co-occurring species through multi-species occupancy modelling. Our findings report a lack of spatial and temporal segregation between the two species for the late spring–summer and late summer–autumn seasons. In contrast, results for the winter–early spring period suggest that spatial partitioning between wild boar and mouflon is present in areas with high artificial cover (e.g., paved roads). Animals may indeed exploit roads to move more rapidly in search of food; however, their occurrence in these areas seems to be influenced by the presence of the other species.

Leopard and spotted hyena densities in the Lake Mburo National Park, southwestern Uganda

Robust measures of animal densities are necessary for effective wildlife management. Leopards (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta Crocuta) are higher order predators that are data deficient across much of their East African range and in Uganda, excepting for one peer-reviewed study on hyenas, there are presently no credible population estimates for these species. A lack of information on the population status and even baseline densities of these species has ramifications as leopards are drawcards for the photo-tourism industry, and along with hyenas are often responsible for livestock depredations from pastoralist communities. Leopards are also sometimes hunted for sport. Establishing baseline density estimates for these species is urgently needed not only for population monitoring purposes, but in the design of sustainable management offtakes, and in assessing certain conservation interventions like financial compensation for livestock depredation. Accordingly, we ran a single-season survey of these carnivores in the Lake Mburo National Park of south-western Uganda using 60 remote camera traps distributed in a paired format at 30 locations. We analysed hyena and leopard detections under a Bayesian spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) modelling framework to estimate their densities. This small national park (370 km²) is surrounded by Bahima pastoralist communities with high densities of cattle on the park edge (with regular park incursions). Leopard densities were estimated at 6.31 individuals/100 km² (posterior SD = 1.47, 95% CI [3.75-9.20]), and spotted hyena densities were 10.99 individuals/100 km², but with wide confidence intervals (posterior SD = 3.35, 95% CI [5.63-17.37]). Leopard and spotted hyena abundance within the boundaries of the national park were 24.87 (posterior SD 7.78) and 39.07 individuals (posterior = SD 13.51) respectively. Leopard densities were on the middle end of SECR studies published in the peer-reviewed literature over the last 5 years while spotted hyena densities were some of the first reported in the literature using SECR, and similar to a study in Botswana which reported 11.80 spotted hyenas/100 km². Densities were not noticeably lower at the park edge, and in the southwest of our study site, despite repeated cattle incursions into these areas. We postulate that the relatively high densities of both species in the region could be owed to impala Aepyceros melampus densities ranging from 16.6-25.6 impala/km². Another, potential explanatory variable (albeit a speculative one) is the absence of interspecific competition from African lions (Panthera leo), which became functionally extinct (there is only one male lion present) in the park nearly two decades ago. This study provides the first robust population estimate of these species anywhere in Uganda and suggests leopards and spotted hyenas continue to persist in the highly modified landscape of Lake Mburo National Park.

Zoning has little impact on the seasonal diel activity and distribution patterns of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve

Understanding the spatio-temporal distribution of ungulates is important for effective wildlife management, particularly for economically and ecologically important species such as wild boar (Sus scrofa). Wild boars are generally considered to exhibit substantial behavioral flexibility, but it is unclear how their behavior varies across different conservation management regimes and levels of human pressure. To analyze if and how wild boars adjust their space use or their temporal niche, we surveyed wild boars across the core and buffer zones (collectively referred to as the conservation zone) and the transition zone of a biosphere reserve. These zones represent low and high levels of human pressure, respectively. Specifically, we employed a network of 53 camera traps distributed in the Schaalsee UNESCO Biosphere Reserve over a 14-month period (19,062 trap nights) and estimated circadian activity patterns, diel activity levels, and occupancy of wild boars in both zones. To account for differences in environmental conditions and day length, we estimated these parameters separately for seven 2-month periods. Our results showed that the wild boars were primarily nocturnal, with diurnal activity occurring dominantly during the summer months. The diel activity patterns in the two zones were very similar overall, although the wild boars were slightly less active in the transition zone than in the conservation zone. Diel activity levels also varied seasonally, ranging from 7.5 to 11.0 h day-1, and scaled positively with the length of the night (R 2 = 0.66-0.67). Seasonal occupancy estimates were exceptionally high (point estimates ranged from 0.65 to 0.99) and similar across zones, suggesting that the wild boars used most of the biosphere reserve. Overall, this result suggests that different conservation management regimes (in this case, the zoning of a biosphere reserve) have little impact on wild boar behavior. This finding is relevant for wildlife management in protected areas where possibly high wild boar densities could interfere with conservation goals within these areas and those of agricultural land use in their vicinity.

Intraspecific interactions in a high-density leopard population

Although less studied than interspecific interactions, interactions among members of the same species can influence space use and temporal activity. Using techniques commonly applied to the analysis of interspecific interactions-multispecies occupancy modeling and the analysis of temporal activity patterns-we studied intraspecific interactions within a high-density population of Persian leopards (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Tandoureh National Park, northeastern Iran. Using camera-trap data, we investigated spatiotemporal interactions between male leopards, lone female leopards, and families (cubs/females with cubs). While we hypothesized that male and female leopards would display different temporal activity patterns, we did not predict spatial avoidance between these groups. We also predicted that leopard families would exhibit spatiotemporal avoidance from male leopards due to the risk of infanticide. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find any evidence for spatial or temporal avoidance between leopard families and adult male leopards. Male and lone female leopards exhibited positive pairwise co-occurrence, consistent with reports of high overlap between male and female leopard home ranges. While a high level of overlap in temporal activity patterns was found between males/lone females and males/families, there was evidence for variation in the proportion of time each leopard group was active in particular periods of the diel cycle. Male leopards showed cathemeral activity, while lone females and families were more active during daylight hours. The application of these techniques to interactions within a species has improved understanding of the ecology and behavior of this endangered solitary carnivore.

Camera-trap data do not indicate scaling of diel activity and cathemerality with body mass in an East African mammal assemblage

Diel activity patterns of animal species reflect constraints imposed by morphological, physiological, and behavioral trade-offs, but these trade-offs are rarely quantified for multispecies assemblages. Based on a systematic year-long camera-trap study in the species-rich mammal assemblage of Lake Manyara National Park (Tanzania), we estimated activity levels (hours active per day) and circadian rhythms of 17 herbivore and 11 faunivore species to determine the effects of body mass and trophic level on activity levels and cathemerality (the degree to which species are active throughout the day and night). Using generalized least squares and phylogenetic generalized least squares analyses, we found no support for the hypothesis that trophic level is positively associated with activity levels. We found no support for activity levels to scale positively with body mass in herbivores or to differ between ruminants and nonruminants; in faunivores, we also did not detect relationships between body mass and activity levels. Cathemerality was positively associated with activity levels but did not scale significantly with body mass. Overall, our findings caution against trophic level or body mass-associated generalized conclusions with regard to diel activity patterns.

Response of mesocarnivores to anthropogenic landscape intensification: activity patterns and guild temporal interactions

Carnivores face important anthropogenic threats in agricultural areas from habitat loss and fragmentation, disturbance by domestic free-roaming dogs and cats, and direct hunting by humans. Anthropogenic disturbances are shifting the activity patterns of wild animals, likely modifying species interactions. We estimated changes in the activity patterns of the mesocarnivore guild of agricultural landscapes of the La Araucanía region in southern Chile in response to land-use intensification, comparing intra- and interspecific activity patterns at low and high levels of forest cover, fragmentation, and land ownership subdivision. Our focal species comprise the güiña or kod-kod (Leopardus guigna), two fox species (Lycalopex culpaeus and L. griseus), a skunk (Conepatus chinga), and one native mustelid (Galictis cuja), in addition to free-roaming dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) and their main mammalian prey species (i.e., Rodentia and Lagomorpha). In 23,373 trap nights, we totaled 21,729 independent records of our focal species. Our results show tendencies toward nocturnality at high land-use intensification, with potential impacts on species fitness. Nocturnal mesocarnivores decreased their diurnal/crepuscular activity, while cathemeral activity shifted to nocturnal activity at high land-use intensification, but only when in sympatry with a competitor. High land-use intensification decreased the activity overlap between native and domestic mesocarnivores but increased the overlap between native mesocarnivores. High intensification also reduced overlap with prey species. Notably, foxes displayed peaks of activity opposing those of dogs, and plasticity in activity pattern when in sympatry with dogs, such as strategies to avoid encounters. We stress the need to suppress the free-roaming and unsupervised activity of dogs to mitigate impacts of high land-use intensification on mesocarnivores.

Prey availability and intraguild competition regulate the spatiotemporal dynamics of a modified large carnivore guild

Effective conservation management requires an understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics driving large carnivore density and resource partitioning. In African ecosystems, reduced prey populations and the loss of competing guild members, most notably lion (Panthera leo), are expected to increase the levels of competition between remaining carnivores. Consequently, intraguild relationships can be altered, potentially increasing the risk of further population decline. Kasungu National Park (KNP), Malawi, is an example of a conservation area that has experienced large-scale reductions in both carnivore and prey populations, leaving a resident large carnivore guild consisting of only leopard (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Here, we quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of these two species and their degree of association, using a combination of co-detection modeling, time-to-event analyses, and temporal activity patterns from camera trap data. The detection of leopard and spotted hyena was significantly associated with the detection of preferred prey and competing carnivores, increasing the likelihood of species interaction. Temporal analyses revealed sex-specific differences in temporal activity, with female leopard activity patterns significantly different to those of spotted hyena and male conspecifics. Heightened risk of interaction with interspecific competitors and male conspecifics may have resulted in female leopards adopting temporal avoidance strategies to facilitate coexistence. Female leopard behavioral adaptations increased overall activity levels and diurnal activity rates, with potential consequences for overall fitness and exposure to sources of mortality. As both species are currently found at low densities in KNP, increased risk of competitive interactions, which infer a reduction in fitness, could have significant implications for large carnivore demographics. The protection of remaining prey populations is necessary to mitigate interspecific competition and avoid further alterations to the large carnivore guild.

Does the crested porcupine select coppice forest? Habitat preference and activity patterns of a large rodent in the Lago di Vico Natural Reserve

The crested porcupine Hystrix cristata L. is a large rodent, which mainly occurs in agro-forestry ecosystems in Italy. In this study, we modelled the occupancy of this species in forest ecosystems, to identify environmental characteristics affecting its presence. The study was conducted at Lago di Vico Natural Reserve (Latium, Central Italy) in 2018–2019. The sampling design included a 1 km2 grid, where 263 detections were recorded at 39 out of 57 camera-trap points. Dendroauxometric data were collected at each site as covariates in the statistical models. According to our best occupancy model, the crested porcupine mostly occurs in habitats not totally covered by forests, but composed by mixed landscape patches both for the land use (crops, woods) and for the coverage (forested areas, open areas, bushes). We also analysed activity rhythms of the crested porcupine across seasons and in relation to the moon phases. The analysis of 543 videos showed that crested porcupine is strictly nocturnal throughout the year and avoided bright nights, despite the local absence of potential predators.

Spatiotemporal Overlap between the European Brown Hare and Its Potential Predators and Competitors

Analysis of spatiotemporal partitioning is pivotal to shed light on interspecific coexistence. Most research effort has involved large-sized carnivores and their prey, whereas little attention has been devoted to lagomorphs. We assessed spatiotemporal overlap among the European brown hare Lepus europaeus and its potential competitors and predators through camera-trapping in an area in Central Italy. We estimated the interspecific patterns of the spatiotemporal activity rhythms of brown hares, its potential predators (the red fox Vulpes vulpes, the pine marten Martes martes, the domestic cat Felis catus, and the domestic dog Canis familiaris), and a competitor, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus. Brown hare activity was studied in natural conditions as well as in a fenced area that excluded terrestrial predators and competitors. Free-ranging hares developed a more nocturnal behavior to avoid diurnal predators (i.e., domestic carnivores and martens). Although high temporal overlap was observed between free-ranging brown hares and both red foxes (82%) and roe deer (81%), hares avoided fox by being more active on darkest nights, as well as avoided roe deer through spatial partitioning. We suggest that hares may adapt their spatiotemporal behavior to avoid potential predators and competitors.

Daily Activity Patterns and Co-Occurrence of Duikers Revealed by an Intensive Camera Trap Survey across Central African Rainforests

The duiker community in Central African rainforests includes a diversity of species that can coexist in the same area. The study of their activity patterns is needed to better understand habitat use or association between the species. Using camera traps, we studied the temporal activity patterns, and quantified for the first time the temporal overlap and spatial co-occurrence between species. Our results show that: (i) Two species are strongly diurnal: Cephalophus leucogaster, and Philantomba congica, (ii) two species are mostly diurnal: C.callipygus and C. nigrifrons, (iii) one species is strongly nocturnal: C.castaneus, (iv) and one species is mostly nocturnal: C.silvicultor. Analyses of temporal activities (for five species) identified four species pairs that highly overlapped (Δ^≥&nbsp;0.80), and six pairs that weakly overlapped (Δ^ between 0.06 and 0.35). Finally, co-occurrence tests reveal a truly random co-occurrence (p_lt > 0.05 and p_gt > 0.05) for six species pairs, and a positive co-occurrence (p_gt < 0.05) for four pairs. Positive co-occurrences are particularly noted for pairs formed by C.callipygus with the other species (except C. nigrifrons). These results are essential for a better understanding of the coexistence of duikers and the ecology of poorly known species (C. leucogaster and C. nigrifrons), and provide clarification on the activity patterns of C. silvicultor which was subject to controversy. Camera traps proved then to be a powerful tool for studying the activity patterns of free-ranging duiker populations.