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Rinaldi L, Giorgione C, Mormone A, Esposito F, Rinaldi M, Berretta M, Marfella R, Romano C. Non-Invasive Measurement of Hepatic Fibrosis by Transient Elastography: A Narrative Review. Viruses 2023; 15:1730. [PMID: 37632072 PMCID: PMC10459581 DOI: 10.3390/v15081730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Transient elastography by FibroScan® (Echosens, Paris, France) is a non-invasive method that can provide a reliable measurement of liver fibrosis through the evaluation of liver stiffness. Despite its limitations and risks, liver biopsy has thus far been the only procedure able to provide data to quantify fibrosis. Scientific evidence and clinical practice have made it possible to use FibroScan® in the diagnostic work-up of several liver diseases to monitor patients' long-term treatment response and for complication prevention. For these reasons, this procedure is widely used in clinical practice and is still being investigated for further applications. The aim of this narrative review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the main applications of transient elastography in the current clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Rinaldi
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, “Luigi Vanvitelli” University of Campania, 80131 Naples, Italy; (L.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Chiara Giorgione
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, “Luigi Vanvitelli” University of Campania, 80131 Naples, Italy; (L.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Andrea Mormone
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, “Luigi Vanvitelli” University of Campania, 80131 Naples, Italy; (L.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Francesca Esposito
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, “Luigi Vanvitelli” University of Campania, 80131 Naples, Italy; (L.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Michele Rinaldi
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive and Odontostomatological Sciences, “Federico II” University of Naples, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Massimiliano Berretta
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98121 Messina, Italy;
| | - Raffaele Marfella
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, “Luigi Vanvitelli” University of Campania, 80131 Naples, Italy; (L.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Ciro Romano
- Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, “Luigi Vanvitelli” University of Campania, 80131 Naples, Italy; (L.R.); (R.M.)
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Boldt ABW, Oliveira-Toré CDF, Kretzschmar GC, Weinschutz Mendes H, Stinghen ST, Andrade FA, Bumiller-Bini V, Gonçalves LB, Braga ACDM, Stahlke EVRS, Velavan TP, Thiel S, de Messias-Reason IJT. Hepatitis B Virus Infection Among Leprosy Patients: A Case for Polymorphisms Compromising Activation of the Lectin Pathway and Complement Receptors. Front Immunol 2021; 11:574457. [PMID: 33643280 PMCID: PMC7904891 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.574457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Thousands of leprosy patients not only suffer from physical deformities, but also either have or have had hepatitis B virus (HBV) coinfection. Polymorphisms of the complement system modulate susceptibility to leprosy, but genetic susceptibility to past or present HBV infection is unknown. We used sequencing and multiplex sequence-specific PCR to genotype 72 polymorphisms of seven genes (MBL2, FCN1, FCN2, FCN3, MASP1, MASP2, C3) encoding components of the lectin pathway, and two genes encoding complement receptors (CR1, VSIG4) in 190 patients, of which 74 were positive for HBsAg and/or anti-HBc (HBV+, 93.2% with a resolved infection) and 116 lepromatous patients, and 408 HBV-blood donors. In addition, we tested for levels of proteins of the lectin pathway. We found no difference between serum concentrations of mannan-binding lectin (MBL), MBL-associated serine proteins (MASP-1, MASP-2, MASP-3, MAp44), ficolin-3 (FCN-3), soluble complement receptor 1 (sCR1) and MBL mediated C4 activation, measured by ELISA or TRIFMA in up to 167 HBV+ and HBV- patients. Haplotypes lowering protein levels or encoding dysfunctional proteins increased susceptibility to HBV infection: MBL2*LYQC (OR = 3.4, p = 0.02), MASP1*AC_CC (OR = 4.0, p = 0.015) and MASP2*1C2-l (OR = 5.4, p = 0.03). Conversely, FCN1*3C2 haplotype, associated with higher gene expression, was protective (OR = 0.56, P = 0.033). Other haplotypes associated with HBV susceptibility were: MASP2*2B1-i (OR = 19.25, P = 0.003), CR1*3A (OR = 2.65, P = 0.011) and VSIG4*TGGRCG (OR = 12.55, P = 0.014). Some polymorphisms in ficolin genes associated with lower protein levels increased susceptibility to leprosy/HBV infection: FCN*1 (OR = 1.66, P = 0.029), FCN2*GGGCAC (OR = 6.73, P = 0.008), and FCN3*del_del_C (OR = 12.54, P = 0.037), and to lepromatous disease/HBV infection: FCN2*TA (OR = 2.5, P = 0.009), whereas FCN2*MAG was associated with increased FCN-2 expression and resistance against coinfection (OR = 0.29, P = 0.026). These associations were independent of demographic factors and did not increase susceptibility to leprosy per se, except MASP2*1C2-l. Associations for FCN2, FCN3, MASP1, MASP2, and VSIG4 variants were also independent of each other. In conclusion, polymorphisms compromising activation of the lectin pathway of complement increase susceptibility to HBV infection, with ficolin polymorphisms playing a major role in modulating the susceptibility among leprosy patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica Beate Winter Boldt
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Postgraduate Program in Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Camila de Freitas Oliveira-Toré
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Canalli Kretzschmar
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Postgraduate Program in Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Hellen Weinschutz Mendes
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Sérvio Túlio Stinghen
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Antunes Andrade
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Valéria Bumiller-Bini
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Postgraduate Program in Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Letícia Boslooper Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Anna Carolina de Moraes Braga
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | - Thirumalaisamy P. Velavan
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Vietnamese-German Center for Medical Research, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Faculty of Medicine, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam
| | - Steffen Thiel
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Iara José Taborda de Messias-Reason
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Postgraduate Program in Internal Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
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Ng TI, Dorr PK, Krishnan P, Cohen DE, Rhee S, Wang SX, Ruzek MC, Mensa FJ, Kati WM. Biomarkers for the clinical development of antiviral therapies. CYTOMETRY. PART B, CLINICAL CYTOMETRY 2021; 100:19-32. [PMID: 34542933 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.b.21974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
With the morbidity and mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic that we are witnessing this year, the risks posed by emerging viral diseases to global health are all too obvious. This pandemic highlights the importance of antiviral drug discovery, which targets emerging viral pathogens, as well as existing pathogenic viruses that undergo continuous evolution. Drug discovery and development is a long and resource intensive process; however, the use of biomarkers can accelerate clinical development of antivirals by providing information regarding diagnosis of specific viral infections, status of infection, potential safety parameters, and antiviral responses. In clinical practice, many of the biomarkers initially utilized to support clinical development are also used for patient care. While viral load is a standard and essential biomarker used to detect the desired viral suppression induced by an antiviral agent, it has become apparent that additional biomarkers, whether related to the virus, the host or as a consequence of the drug's mechanistic effects, are also important for monitoring clinical outcomes associated with an antiviral therapy. This review summarizes the biomarkers used in the clinical development (as well as in clinical practice, where appropriate) of antiviral therapies for hepatitis C virus, hepatitis B virus, human immunodeficiency virus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa I Ng
- Virology Drug Discovery, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Patrick K Dorr
- General Medicine and Virology, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Preethi Krishnan
- Virology Drug Discovery, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Daniel E Cohen
- General Medicine and Virology, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Susan Rhee
- General Medicine and Virology, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Stanley X Wang
- General Medicine and Virology, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Melanie C Ruzek
- Translational Immunology, AbbVie Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Federico J Mensa
- General Medicine and Virology, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Warren M Kati
- Virology Drug Discovery, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Wang J, Jia J, Chen R, Ding S, Xu Q, Zhang T, Chen X, Liu S, Lu F. RFX1 participates in doxorubicin-induced hepatitis B virus reactivation. Cancer Med 2018; 7:2021-2033. [PMID: 29601674 PMCID: PMC5943424 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.1468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs, including doxorubicin, can directly promote hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication, but the mechanism has not been fully clarified. This study investigated the potential mechanism underlying the cytotoxic chemotherapy‐mediated direct promotion of HBV replication. We found that HBV replication and regulatory factor X box 1 gene (RFX1) expression were simultaneously promoted by doxorubicin treatment. The amount of RFX1 bound to the HBV enhancer I was significantly increased under doxorubicin treatment. Furthermore, the activity of doxorubicin in promoting HBV replication was significantly attenuated when the expression of endogenous RFX1 was knocked down, and the EP element of HBV enhancer I, an element that mediated the binding of RFX1 and HBV enhancer I, was mutated. In addition, two different sequences of the conserved EP element were found among HBV genotypes A‐D, and doxorubicin could promote the replication of HBV harboring either of the conserved EP elements. Here, a novel pathway in which doxorubicin promoted HBV replication via RFX1 was identified, and it might participate in doxorubicin‐induced HBV reactivation. These findings would be helpful in preventing HBV reactivation during anticancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Junqiao Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Ran Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Shanlong Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Qiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangmei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Shuang Liu
- Beijing Artificial Liver Treatment & Training Center, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Fengmin Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Department of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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Aggeletopoulou I, Konstantakis C, Manolakopoulos S, Triantos C. Risk of hepatitis B reactivation in patients treated with direct-acting antivirals for hepatitis C. World J Gastroenterol 2017; 23:4317-4323. [PMID: 28706414 PMCID: PMC5487495 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v23.i24.4317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent introduction of direct-acting antiviral drugs (DAAs) for treatment of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) has greatly improved the management of HCV for infected patients. These viral protein inhibitors act rapidly, allowing HCV clearance and increasing the sustained virological response rates. However, hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation has been reported in HCV/HBV co-infected patients. Hepatitis B reactivation refers to an abrupt increase in the HBV and is well-documented in patients with previously undetected HBV DNA due to inactive or resolved HBV infection. Reactivation can occur spontaneously, but in most cases, it is triggered by various factors. Reactivation can be transient, without clinical symptoms; however, it usually causes a hepatitis flare. HBV reactivation may occur regardless of HCV genotype and type of DAA regimen. HBV screening is strongly recommended for co-infected HCV/HBV patients before initiation and during DAA therapy regardless of HBV status, HCV genotype and class of DAAs used. HBV reactivation can be prevented with pretreatment screening and prophylactic treatment when necessary. Additional data are required to evaluate the underlying mechanisms of HBV reactivation in this setting.
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Osiowy C, Coffin C, Andonov A. Review of Laboratory Tests used in Monitoring Hepatitis B Response to Pegylated Interferon and Nucleos(t)ide Analog Therapy. CURRENT TREATMENT OPTIONS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2016; 8:177-193. [PMID: 27547127 PMCID: PMC4969325 DOI: 10.1007/s40506-016-0080-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There are only two currently approved classes of hepatitis B virus (HBV) antiviral agents, pegylated interferon (Peg-IFN), and nucleos(t)ide analogs (NAs) for chronic HBV infection. Although Peg-IFN is used for a finite 48-week duration and offers a greater chance of sustained off-treatment virological response, it is poorly tolerated and can only be offered to selected patients. The NAs are well tolerated but require prolonged therapy due to risk of relapse with treatment cessation. There is evolving data that novel virological assays (e.g., quantitative hepatitis B surface antigen, quantitative hepatitis B core antigen, quantitative antibody to core protein) in combination with hepatitis B genotype and more sensitive HBV DNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays may be useful to predict response to IFN as well as off-treatment NA durability. Utilization of these clinical laboratory tests may be important given the development of novel anti-HBV therapies, hoping to achieve a cure for chronic hepatitis B infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Osiowy
- Bloodborne Pathogens and Hepatitis, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 1015 Arlington St., Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2 Canada
| | - Carla Coffin
- Liver Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - Anton Andonov
- Bloodborne Pathogens and Hepatitis, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 1015 Arlington St., Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2 Canada
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Bessone F, Dirchwolf M. Management of hepatitis B reactivation in immunosuppressed patients: An update on current recommendations. World J Hepatol 2016; 8:385-94. [PMID: 27004086 PMCID: PMC4794528 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v8.i8.385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The proportion of hepatitis B virus (HBV) previously exposed patients who receive immunosuppressive treatment is usually very small. However, if these individuals are exposed to potent immunosuppressive compounds, the risk of HBV reactivation (HBVr) increases with the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in the serum. Chronic HBsAg carriers have a higher risk than those who have a total IgG anticore as the only marker of resolved/occult HBV disease. The loss of immune control in these patients may results in the reactivation of HBV replication within hepatocytes. Upon reconstitution of the immune system, infected hepatocytes are once again targeted and damaged by immune surveillance in an effort to clear the virus. There are different virological scenarios, and a wide spectrum of associated drugs with specific and stratified risk for the development of HBVr. Some of this agents can trigger a severe degree of hepatocellular damage, including hepatitis, acute liver failure, and even death despite employment of effective antiviral therapies. Currently, HBVr incidence seems to be increasing around the world; a fact mainly related to the incessant appearance of more powerful immunosuppressive drugs launched to the market. Moreover, there is no consensus on the length of prophylactic treatment before the patients are treated with immunosuppressive therapy, and for how long this therapy should be extended once treatment is completed. Therefore, this review article will focus on when to treat, when to monitor, what patients should receive HBV therapy, and what drugs should be selected for each scenario. Lastly, we will update the definition, risk factors, screening, and treatment recommendations based on both current and different HBV management guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Bessone
- Fernando Bessone, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine, University of Rosario, Rosario 2000, Argentina
| | - Melisa Dirchwolf
- Fernando Bessone, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine, University of Rosario, Rosario 2000, Argentina
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Uluca Ü, Şen V, Ece A, Tan İ, Karabel D, Aktar F, Karabel M, Balık H, Güneş A. Serum galectin-3 levels in children with chronic hepatitis B infection and inactive hepatitis B carriers. Med Sci Monit 2015; 21:1376-80. [PMID: 25968249 PMCID: PMC4548702 DOI: 10.12659/msm.894035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is common worldwide. Follow-up of patients by the use of non-invasive techniques may be valuable in clinical practice. The aim of this study was to investigate serum galectin-3 (GAL-3) levels for monitoring disease status in children with chronic HBV infection. MATERIAL/METHODS Thirty-two patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB), 30 inactive HBV carrier patients, and 30 matched healthy controls were enrolled in the study. We performed basic laboratory tests: serum glucose, albumin, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), total bilirubin, prothrombin time, and activated partial thromboplastin time. In addition, serum GAL-3 levels were measured by ELISA technique. RESULTS Significantly higher serum GAL-3 levels (16.5±3.6, 1.1±0.3, 0.7±0.5 ng/ml, respectively, p<0.001) and ALT levels (80.2±30.6, 26.8±12.6, 28.1±4.4 IU/L, respectively, p<0.001) were found in the CHB group compared with the inactive carriers and the control groups. There were no significant differences in ALT levels and GAL-3 levels or between inactive HBV carriers and the control groups (p>0.05, for each). Significantly higher GGT levels were found in the CHB group (51.3±27.5 IU/L) compared with the inactive HBV carriers (35.7±10.1 IU/L) and the control group (31.3±9.5 IU/L) (p<0.001, and p=0.004, respectively). A significant correlation was found between GAL-3 and ALT levels in the CHB group (r=0.82, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that serum GAL-3 level may be a beneficial indicator of chronicity in hepatitis B infection in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ünal Uluca
- Corresponding Author: Ünal Uluca, e-mail:
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Abstract
Aim of the study To identify distribution of HBV genotypes in particular regions of Poland. Material and methods The study included 270 treatment-naïve, HBV-infected individuals, enrolled in 7 centers of Poland. HBV genotyping was performed in 243 of them with the INNO-LiPA HBV Genotyping assay (Innogenetics). Results Genotype A present in 2/3 patients was demonstrated as the most predominant in Poland. It was followed by D (20%), H (5%) and mixed A + D (5%). Remaining patients were infected with genotype F, mixed D + G, A + C or D + F. Analysis of distribution demonstrated regional differences, with a higher rate of genotype D prevalence (about 30%) in the eastern (Białystok and Lublin) and south-western (Wrocław) parts compared to other regions, where the prevalence rate was below 15%. The highest prevalence of genotype A (exceeding 80%) was observed in central Poland (Bydgoszcz, Łódź). Conclusions The presented data reveal the current distribution of HBV genotypes across Poland, which is the first and the largest such epidemiological analysis.
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