1
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Meyer FM, Bramkamp M. Cell wall synthesizing complexes in Mycobacteriales. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 79:102478. [PMID: 38653035 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Members of the order Mycobacteriales are distinguished by a characteristic diderm cell envelope, setting them apart from other Actinobacteria species. In addition to the conventional peptidoglycan cell wall, these organisms feature an extra polysaccharide polymer composed of arabinose and galactose, termed arabinogalactan. The nonreducing ends of arabinose are covalently linked to mycolic acids (MAs), forming the immobile inner leaflet of the highly hydrophobic MA membrane. The contiguous outer leaflet of the MA membrane comprises trehalose mycolates and various lipid species. Similar to all actinobacteria, Mycobacteriales exhibit apical growth, facilitated by a polar localized elongasome complex. A septal cell envelope synthesis machinery, the divisome, builds instead of the cell wall structures during cytokinesis. In recent years, a growing body of knowledge has emerged regarding the cell wall synthesizing complexes of Mycobacteriales., focusing particularly on three model species: Corynebacterium glutamicum, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian M Meyer
- Institute for General Microbiology, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Marc Bramkamp
- Institute for General Microbiology, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118 Kiel, Germany.
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2
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Valladares A, Picossi S, Corrales-Guerrero L, Herrero A. The role of SepF in cell division and diazotrophic growth in the multicellular cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120. Microbiol Res 2023; 277:127489. [PMID: 37716126 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2023.127489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterium Anabaena forms filaments of cells that grow by intercalary cell division producing adjoined daughter cells connected by septal junction protein complexes that provide filament cohesion and intercellular communication, representing a genuine case of bacterial multicellularity. In spite of their diderm character, cyanobacterial genomes encode homologs of SepF, a protein normally found in Gram-positive bacteria. In Anabaena, SepF is an essential protein that localized to the cell division ring and the intercellular septa. Overexpression of sepF had detrimental effects on growth, provoking conspicuous alterations in cell morphology that resemble the phenotype of mutants impaired in cell division, and altered the localization of the division-ring. SepF interacted with FtsZ and with the essential FtsZ tether ZipN. Whereas SepF from unicellular bacteria generally induces the bundling of FtsZ filaments, Anabaena SepF inhibited FtsZ bundling, reducing the thickness of the toroidal aggregates formed by FtsZ alone and eventually preventing FtsZ polymerization. Thus, in Anabaena SepF appears to have an essential role in cell division by limiting the polymerization of FtsZ to allow the correct formation and localization of the Z-ring. Expression of sepF is downregulated during heterocyst differentiation, likely contributing to the inhibition of Z-ring formation in heterocysts. Finally, the localization of SepF in intercellular septa and its interaction with the septal-junction related proteins SepJ and SepI suggest a role of SepF in the formation or stability of the septal complexes that mediate cell-cell adhesion and communication, processes that are key for the multicellular behavior of Anabaena.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Valladares
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, CSIC and Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - S Picossi
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, CSIC and Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - L Corrales-Guerrero
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, CSIC and Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - A Herrero
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis, CSIC and Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain.
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3
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Shinde Y, Pathan A, Chinnam S, Rathod G, Patil B, Dhangar M, Mathew B, Kim H, Mundada A, Kukreti N, Ahmad I, Patel H. Mycobacterial FtsZ and inhibitors: a promising target for the anti-tubercular drug development. Mol Divers 2023:10.1007/s11030-023-10759-8. [PMID: 38010605 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-023-10759-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) strains has rendered many anti-TB drugs ineffective. Consequently, there is an urgent need to identify new drug targets against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Filament Forming Temperature Sensitive Gene Z (FtsZ), a member of the cytoskeletal protein family, plays a vital role in cell division by forming a cytokinetic ring at the cell's center and coordinating the division machinery. When FtsZ is depleted, cells are unable to divide and instead elongate into filamentous structures that eventually undergo lysis. Since the inactivation of FtsZ or alterations in its assembly impede the formation of the Z-ring and septum, FtsZ shows promise as a target for the development of anti-mycobacterial drugs. This review not only discusses the potential role of FtsZ as a promising pharmacological target for anti-tuberculosis therapies but also explores the structural and functional aspects of the mycobacterial protein FtsZ in cell division. Additionally, it reviews various inhibitors of Mtb FtsZ. By understanding the importance of FtsZ in cell division, researchers can explore strategies to disrupt its function, impeding the growth and proliferation of Mtb. Furthermore, the investigation of different inhibitors that target Mtb FtsZ expands the potential for developing effective treatments against tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashodeep Shinde
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India
| | - Asama Pathan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India
| | - Sampath Chinnam
- Department of Chemistry, M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology (Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum), Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560054, India
| | - Gajanan Rathod
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S. A. S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab, 160062, India
| | - Bhatu Patil
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India
| | - Mayur Dhangar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India
| | - Bijo Mathew
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi, 690525, India
| | - Hoon Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, and Research Institute of Life Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 57922, Republic of Korea
| | - Anand Mundada
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India
| | - Neelima Kukreti
- School of Pharmacy, Graphic Era Hill University-Dehradun, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 248002, India
| | - Iqrar Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India
| | - Harun Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India.
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4
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Martinez M, Petit J, Leyva A, Sogues A, Megrian D, Rodriguez A, Gaday Q, Ben Assaya M, Portela MM, Haouz A, Ducret A, Grangeasse C, Alzari PM, Durán R, Wehenkel AM. Eukaryotic-like gephyrin and cognate membrane receptor coordinate corynebacterial cell division and polar elongation. Nat Microbiol 2023; 8:1896-1910. [PMID: 37679597 PMCID: PMC10522489 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01473-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
The order Corynebacteriales includes major industrial and pathogenic Actinobacteria such as Corynebacterium glutamicum or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These bacteria have multi-layered cell walls composed of the mycolyl-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex and a polar growth mode, thus requiring tight coordination between the septal divisome, organized around the tubulin-like protein FtsZ, and the polar elongasome, assembled around the coiled-coil protein Wag31. Here, using C. glutamicum, we report the discovery of two divisome members: a gephyrin-like repurposed molybdotransferase (Glp) and its membrane receptor (GlpR). Our results show how cell cycle progression requires interplay between Glp/GlpR, FtsZ and Wag31, showcasing a crucial crosstalk between the divisome and elongasome machineries that might be targeted for anti-mycobacterial drug discovery. Further, our work reveals that Corynebacteriales have evolved a protein scaffold to control cell division and morphogenesis, similar to the gephyrin/GlyR system that mediates synaptic signalling in higher eukaryotes through network organization of membrane receptors and the microtubule cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Martinez
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Julienne Petit
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Alejandro Leyva
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Adrià Sogues
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Structural and Molecular Microbiology, VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, VIB, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Daniela Megrian
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Azalia Rodriguez
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Quentin Gaday
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Mathildeb Ben Assaya
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Maria Magdalena Portela
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ahmed Haouz
- Plate-forme de cristallographie, C2RT-Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Adrien Ducret
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Christophe Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Pedro M Alzari
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Rosario Durán
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Anne Marie Wehenkel
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France.
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5
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Naha A, Haeusser DP, Margolin W. Anchors: A way for FtsZ filaments to stay membrane bound. Mol Microbiol 2023; 120:525-538. [PMID: 37503768 PMCID: PMC10593102 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Most bacteria use the tubulin homolog FtsZ to organize their cell division. FtsZ polymers initially assemble into mobile complexes that circle around a ring-like structure at the cell midpoint, followed by the recruitment of other proteins that will constrict the cytoplasmic membrane and synthesize septal peptidoglycan to divide the cell. Despite the need for FtsZ polymers to associate with the membrane, FtsZ lacks intrinsic membrane binding ability. Consequently, FtsZ polymers have evolved to interact with the membrane through adaptor proteins that both bind FtsZ and the membrane. Here, we discuss recent progress in understanding the functions of these FtsZ membrane tethers. Some, such as FtsA and SepF, are widely conserved and assemble into varied oligomeric structures bound to the membrane through an amphipathic helix. Other less-conserved proteins, such as EzrA and ZipA, have transmembrane domains, make extended structures, and seem to bind to FtsZ through two separate interactions. This review emphasizes that most FtsZs use multiple membrane tethers with overlapping functions, which not only attach FtsZ polymers to the membrane but also organize them in specific higher-order structures that can optimize cell division activity. We discuss gaps in our knowledge of these concepts and how future studies can address them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arindam Naha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UTHealth-Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Daniel P. Haeusser
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UTHealth-Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Department of Biology, Canisius College, Buffalo, NY 14208, USA
| | - William Margolin
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, UTHealth-Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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6
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Smrt ST, Escobar CA, Dey S, Cross TA, Zhou HX. An Arg/Ala-rich helix in the N-terminal region of M. tuberculosis FtsQ is a potential membrane anchor of the Z-ring. Commun Biol 2023; 6:311. [PMID: 36959324 PMCID: PMC10036325 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04686-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mtb infects a quarter of the worldwide population. Most drugs for treating tuberculosis target cell growth and division. With rising drug resistance, it becomes ever more urgent to better understand Mtb cell division. This process begins with the formation of the Z-ring via polymerization of FtsZ and anchoring of the Z-ring to the inner membrane. Here we show that the transmembrane protein FtsQ is a potential membrane anchor of the Mtb Z-ring. In the otherwise disordered cytoplasmic region of FtsQ, a 29-residue, Arg/Ala-rich α-helix is formed that interacts with upstream acidic residues in solution and with acidic lipids at the membrane surface. This helix also binds to the GTPase domain of FtsZ, with implications for drug binding and Z-ring formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean T Smrt
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Cristian A Escobar
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA
- Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Souvik Dey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
| | - Timothy A Cross
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA.
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
- Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
| | - Huan-Xiang Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA.
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA.
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7
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Models versus pathogens: how conserved is the FtsZ in bacteria? Biosci Rep 2023; 43:232502. [PMID: 36695643 PMCID: PMC9939409 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20221664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Combating anti-microbial resistance by developing alternative strategies is the need of the hour. Cell division, particularly FtsZ, is being extensively studied for its potential as an alternative target for anti-bacterial therapy. Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli are the two well-studied models for research on FtsZ, the leader protein of the cell division machinery. As representatives of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, respectively, these organisms have provided an extensive outlook into the process of cell division in rod-shaped bacteria. However, research on other shapes of bacteria, like cocci and ovococci, lags behind that of model rods. Even though most regions of FtsZ show sequence and structural conservation throughout bacteria, the differences in FtsZ functioning and interacting partners establish several different modes of division in different bacteria. In this review, we compare the features of FtsZ and cell division in the model rods B. subtilis and E. coli and the four pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Reviewing several recent articles on these pathogenic bacteria, we have highlighted the functioning of FtsZ, the unique roles of FtsZ-associated proteins, and the cell division processes in them. Further, we provide a detailed look at the anti-FtsZ compounds discovered and their target bacteria, emphasizing the need for elucidation of the anti-FtsZ mechanism of action in different bacteria. Current challenges and opportunities in the ongoing journey of identifying potent anti-FtsZ drugs have also been described.
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8
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Zhang L, Willemse J, Yagüe P, de Waal E, Claessen D, van Wezel GP. The SepF-like proteins SflA and SflB prevent ectopic localization of FtsZ and DivIVA during sporulation of Streptomyces coelicolor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 645:79-87. [PMID: 36680940 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial cytokinesis starts with the polymerization of the tubulin-like FtsZ, which forms the cell division scaffold. SepF aligns FtsZ polymers and also acts as a membrane anchor for the Z-ring. While in most bacteria cell division takes place at midcell, during sporulation of Streptomyces many septa are laid down almost simultaneously in multinucleoid aerial hyphae. The genomes of streptomycetes encode two additional SepF paralogs, SflA and SflB, which can interact with SepF. Here we show that the sporogenic aerial hyphae of sflA and sflB mutants of Streptomyces coelicolor frequently branch, a phenomenon never seen in the wild-type strain. The branching coincided with ectopic localization of DivIVA along the lateral wall of sporulating aerial hyphae. Constitutive expression of SflA and SflB largely inhibited hyphal growth, further correlating SflAB activity to that of DivIVA. SflAB localized in foci prior to and after the time of sporulation-specific cell division, while SepF co-localized with active septum synthesis. Foci of FtsZ and DivIVA frequently persisted between adjacent spores in spore chains of sflA and sflB mutants, at sites occupied by SflAB in wild-type cells. Taken together, our data show that SflA and SflB play an important role in the control of growth and cell division during Streptomyces development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden, 2300, AB, the Netherlands
| | - Joost Willemse
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden, 2300, AB, the Netherlands
| | - Paula Yagüe
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e IUOPA, Área de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, 33006, Spain
| | - Ellen de Waal
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden, 2300, AB, the Netherlands
| | - Dennis Claessen
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden, 2300, AB, the Netherlands
| | - Gilles P van Wezel
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden, 2300, AB, the Netherlands.
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Martinez M, Petit J, Leyva A, Sogues A, Megrian D, Rodriguez A, Gaday Q, Ben Assaya M, Portela M, Haouz A, Ducret A, Grangeasse C, Alzari PM, Durán R, Wehenkel A. Eukaryotic-like gephyrin and cognate membrane receptor coordinate corynebacterial cell division and polar elongation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.01.526586. [PMID: 36778425 PMCID: PMC9915583 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.01.526586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The order Corynebacteriales includes major industrial and pathogenic actinobacteria such as Corynebacterium glutamicum or Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Their elaborate multi-layered cell wall, composed primarily of the mycolyl-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex, and their polar growth mode impose a stringent coordination between the septal divisome, organized around the tubulin-like protein FtsZ, and the polar elongasome, assembled around the tropomyosin-like protein Wag31. Here, we report the identification of two new divisome members, a gephyrin-like repurposed molybdotransferase (GLP) and its membrane receptor (GLPR). We show that the interplay between the GLPR/GLP module, FtsZ and Wag31 is crucial for orchestrating cell cycle progression. Our results provide a detailed molecular understanding of the crosstalk between two essential machineries, the divisome and elongasome, and reveal that Corynebacteriales have evolved a protein scaffold to control cell division and morphogenesis similar to the gephyrin/GlyR system that in higher eukaryotes mediates synaptic signaling through network organization of membrane receptors and the microtubule cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Martinez
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - J. Petit
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - A. Leyva
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - A. Sogues
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - D. Megrian
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - A. Rodriguez
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Q. Gaday
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - M. Ben Assaya
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - M. Portela
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - A. Haouz
- Plate-forme de cristallographie, C2RT-Institut Pasteur, CNRS, UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - A. Ducret
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université de Lyon, 7 passage du Vercors, 69367 Lyon, France
| | - C. Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université de Lyon, 7 passage du Vercors, 69367 Lyon, France
| | - P. M. Alzari
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - R. Durán
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - A. Wehenkel
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
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10
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Identification of anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis agents targeting the interaction of bacterial division proteins FtsZ and SepF. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023; 13:2056-2070. [PMID: 37250168 PMCID: PMC10213792 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the deadly diseases caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), which presents a significant public health challenge. Treatment of TB relies on the combination of several anti-TB drugs to create shorter and safer regimens. Therefore, new anti-TB agents working by different mechanisms are urgently needed. FtsZ, a tubulin-like protein with GTPase activity, forms a dynamic Z-ring in cell division. Most of FtsZ inhibitors are designed to inhibit GTPase activity. In Mtb, the function of Z-ring is modulated by SepF, a FtsZ binding protein. The FtsZ/SepF interaction is essential for FtsZ bundling and localization at the site of division. Here, we established a yeast two-hybrid based screening system to identify inhibitors of FtsZ/SepF interaction in M. tuberculosis. Using this system, we found compound T0349 showing strong anti-Mtb activity but with low toxicity to other bacteria strains and mice. Moreover, we have demonstrated that T0349 binds specifically to SepF to block FtsZ/SepF interaction by GST pull-down, fluorescence polarization (FP), surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and CRISPRi knockdown assays. Furthermore, T0349 can inhibit bacterial cell division by inducing filamentation and abnormal septum. Our data demonstrated that FtsZ/SepF interaction is a promising anti-TB drug target for identifying agents with novel mechanisms.
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11
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Kaur H, Lynn AM. Mapping the FtsQBL divisome components in bacterial NTD pathogens as potential drug targets. Front Genet 2023; 13:1010870. [PMID: 36685953 PMCID: PMC9846249 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.1010870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokinesis is an essential process in bacterial cell division, and it involves more than 25 essential/non-essential cell division proteins that form a protein complex known as a divisome. Central to the divisome are the proteins FtsB and FtsL binding to FtsQ to form a complex FtsQBL, which helps link the early proteins with late proteins. The FtsQBL complex is highly conserved as a component across bacteria. Pathogens like Vibrio cholerae, Mycobacterium ulcerans, Mycobacterium leprae, and Chlamydia trachomatis are the causative agents of the bacterial Neglected Tropical Diseases Cholera, Buruli ulcer, Leprosy, and Trachoma, respectively, some of which seemingly lack known homologs for some of the FtsQBL complex proteins. In the absence of experimental characterization, either due to insufficient resources or the massive increase in novel sequences generated from genomics, functional annotation is traditionally inferred by sequence similarity to a known homolog. With the advent of accurate protein structure prediction methods, features both at the fold level and at the protein interaction level can be used to identify orthologs that cannot be unambiguously identified using sequence similarity methods. Using the FtsQBL complex proteins as a case study, we report potential remote homologs using Profile Hidden Markov models and structures predicted using AlphaFold. Predicted ortholog structures show conformational similarity with corresponding E. coli proteins irrespective of their level of sequence similarity. Alphafold multimer was used to characterize remote homologs as FtsB or FtsL, when they were not sufficiently distinguishable at both the sequence or structure level, as their interactions with FtsQ and FtsW play a crucial role in their function. The structures were then analyzed to identify functionally critical regions of the proteins consistent with their homologs and delineate regions potentially useful for inhibitor discovery.
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12
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Fressatti Cardoso R, Martín-Blecua I, Pietrowski Baldin V, Meneguello JE, Valverde JR, Blázquez J, Castañeda-García A. Noncanonical Mismatch Repair Protein NucS Modulates the Emergence of Antibiotic Resistance in Mycobacterium abscessus. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0222822. [PMID: 36219122 PMCID: PMC9769700 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02228-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
NucS/EndoMS-dependent noncanonical mismatch repair (MMR) ensures the stability of genomic DNA in mycobacteria and acts as a guardian of the genome by preventing the accumulation of point mutations. In order to address whether the inactivation of noncanonical MMR could increase the acquisition of drug resistance by mutation, a ΔnucS strain was constructed and explored in the emerging pathogen Mycobacterium abscessus. Deletion of nucS resulted in a mutator phenotype with increased acquisition of resistance to macrolides and aminoglycosides, the two main groups of antimycobacterial agents for M. abscessus treatment, and also to second-line drugs such as fluoroquinolones. Inactivation of the noncanonical MMR in M. abscessus led to increases of 10- to 22-fold in the appearance of spontaneous mutants resistant to the macrolide clarithromycin and the aminoglycosides amikacin, gentamicin, and apramycin, compared with the wild-type strain. Furthermore, emergence of fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin) resistance was detected in a nucS-deficient strain but not in a wild-type M. abscessus strain. Acquired drug resistance to macrolides and aminoglycosides was analyzed through sequencing of the 23S rRNA gene rrl and the 16S rRNA gene rrs from independent drug-resistant colonies of both strains. When the acquisition of clarithromycin resistance was examined, a different mutational profile was detected in the M. abscessus ΔnucS strain compared with the wild-type one. To summarize, M. abscessus requires the NucS-dependent noncanonical MMR pathway to prevent the emergence of drug-resistant isolates by mutation. To our knowledge, this is the first report that reveals the role of NucS in a human pathogen, and these findings have potential implications for the treatment of M. abscessus infections. IMPORTANCE Chronic infections caused by M. abscessus are an emerging challenge in public health, posing a substantial health and economic burden, especially in patients with cystic fibrosis. Treatment of M. abscessus infections with antibiotics is particularly challenging, as its complex drug resistance mechanisms, including constitutive resistance through DNA mutation, lead to high rates of treatment failure. To decipher the evolution of antibiotic resistance in M. abscessus, we studied NucS-dependent noncanonical MMR, a unique DNA repair pathway involved in genomic maintenance. Inactivation of NucS is linked to the increase of DNA mutations (hypermutation), which can confer drug resistance. Our analysis detected increased acquisition of mutations conferring resistance to first-line and second-line antibiotics. We believe that this study will improve the knowledge of how this pathogen could evolve into an untreatable infectious agent, and it uncovers a role for hypermutators in chronic infectious diseases under antibiotic pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosilene Fressatti Cardoso
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Biomedicina, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Isabel Martín-Blecua
- Departamento de Biotecnología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vanessa Pietrowski Baldin
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Biomedicina, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Jean Eduardo Meneguello
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Biomedicina, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
| | - José Ramón Valverde
- Departamento de Computación Científica, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Blázquez
- Departamento de Biotecnología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alfredo Castañeda-García
- Departamento de Biotecnología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología CNB-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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13
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Dey S, Zhou HX. Membrane Tethering of SepF, a Membrane Anchor for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Z-ring. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167817. [PMID: 36087777 PMCID: PMC9992448 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial cell division begins with the formation of the Z-ring via polymerization of FtsZ and the localization of Z-ring beneath the inner membrane through membrane anchors. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), SepF is one such membrane anchor, but our understanding of the underlying mechanism is very limited. Here we used molecular dynamics simulations to characterize how SepF itself, a water-soluble protein, tethers to acidic membranes that mimic the Mtb inner membrane. In addition to an amphipathic helix (residues 1-12) at the N-terminus, membrane binding also occurs through two stretches of positively charged residues (Arg27-Arg37 and Arg95-Arg107) in the long linker preceding the FtsZ-binding core domain (residues 128-218). The additional interactions via the disordered linker stabilize the membrane tethering of SepF, and keep the core domain of SepF and hence the attached Z-ring close to the membrane. The resulting membrane proximity of the Z-ring in turn enables its interactions with and thus recruitment of two membrane proteins, FtsW and CrgA, at the late stage of cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souvik Dey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Huan-Xiang Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60607, USA; Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
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14
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Zhang C, Liu W, Deng J, Ma S, Chang Z, Yang J. Structural Insights into the Interaction between Bacillus subtilis SepF Assembly and FtsZ by Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:5219-5230. [PMID: 35799411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c02810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In many species of Gram-positive bacteria, SepF participated in the membrane tethering of FtsZ Z-ring during bacteria division. However, atomic-level details of interaction between SepF and FtsZ in an assembled state are lacking. Here, by combining solid-state NMR (SSNMR) with biochemical analyses, the interaction of Bacillus subtilis SepF and the C-terminal domain (CTD) of FtsZ was investigated. We obtained near complete chemical shift assignments of SepF and determined the structural model of the SepF monomer. Interaction with FtsZ-CTD caused further packing of SepF rings, and SSNMR experiments revealed the affected residues locating at α1, α2, β3, and β4 of SepF. Solution NMR experiments of dimeric SepF constructed by point mutation strategy proved a prerequisite role of α-α interface formation in SepF for FtsZ binding. Overall, our results provide structural insights into the mechanisms of SepF-FtsZ interaction for better understanding the function of SepF in bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Science and Technology, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China.,National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Wenjing Liu
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jing Deng
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Shaojie Ma
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Science and Technology, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China.,National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Ziwei Chang
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Jun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Science and Technology, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China.,National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
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15
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Hyphal compartmentalization and sporulation in Streptomyces require the conserved cell division protein SepX. Nat Commun 2022; 13:71. [PMID: 35013186 PMCID: PMC8748795 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27638-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Filamentous actinobacteria such as Streptomyces undergo two distinct modes of cell division, leading to partitioning of growing hyphae into multicellular compartments via cross-walls, and to septation and release of unicellular spores. Specific determinants for cross-wall formation and the importance of hyphal compartmentalization for Streptomyces development are largely unknown. Here we show that SepX, an actinobacterial-specific protein, is crucial for both cell division modes in Streptomyces venezuelae. Importantly, we find that sepX-deficient mutants grow without cross-walls and that this substantially impairs the fitness of colonies and the coordinated progression through the developmental life cycle. Protein interaction studies and live-cell imaging suggest that SepX contributes to the stabilization of the divisome, a mechanism that also requires the dynamin-like protein DynB. Thus, our work identifies an important determinant for cell division in Streptomyces that is required for cellular development and sporulation. Streptomyces bacteria undergo two modes of cell division: formation of cross-walls in hyphae, leading to multicellular compartments, and septation for release of unicellular spores. Here, Bush et al. identify a protein that is important for both cell division modes in Streptomyces, likely by contributing to stabilization of the divisome.
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16
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Boldrin F, Manganelli R. Repressible Promoter System to Study Essential Genes in Mycobacteria. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2377:317-332. [PMID: 34709624 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1720-5_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Inducible gene expression systems represent powerful tools for studying essential gene function and for validation of drug targets in bacteria. Even if several regulated promoters have been characterized, only a few of them have been successfully used in Mycobacteria. Here we describe a successful mycobacterial gene regulation system based on the presence of two chromosomally encoded repressors: Pip and TetR, and a tunable promoter (Pptr) that allows a tight regulation of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Boldrin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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17
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The archaeal protein SepF is essential for cell division in Haloferax volcanii. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3469. [PMID: 34103513 PMCID: PMC8187382 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23686-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In most bacteria, cell division depends on the tubulin homolog FtsZ and other proteins, such as SepF, that form a complex termed the divisome. Cell division also depends on FtsZ in many archaea, but other components of the divisome are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that a SepF homolog plays important roles in cell division in Haloferax volcanii, a halophilic archaeon that is known to have two FtsZ homologs with slightly different functions (FtsZ1 and FtsZ2). SepF co-localizes with both FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 at midcell. Attempts to generate a sepF deletion mutant were unsuccessful, suggesting an essential role. Indeed, SepF depletion leads to severe cell division defects and formation of large cells. Overexpression of FtsZ1-GFP or FtsZ2-GFP in SepF-depleted cells results in formation of filamentous cells with a high number of FtsZ1 rings, while the number of FtsZ2 rings is not affected. Pull-down assays support that SepF interacts with FtsZ2 but not with FtsZ1, although SepF appears delocalized in the absence of FtsZ1. Archaeal SepF homologs lack a glycine residue known to be important for polymerization and function in bacteria, and purified H. volcanii SepF forms dimers, suggesting that polymerization might not be important for the function of archaeal SepF.
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18
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Pende N, Sogues A, Megrian D, Sartori-Rupp A, England P, Palabikyan H, Rittmann SKMR, Graña M, Wehenkel AM, Alzari PM, Gribaldo S. SepF is the FtsZ anchor in archaea, with features of an ancestral cell division system. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3214. [PMID: 34088904 PMCID: PMC8178401 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23099-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Most archaea divide by binary fission using an FtsZ-based system similar to that of bacteria, but they lack many of the divisome components described in model bacterial organisms. Notably, among the multiple factors that tether FtsZ to the membrane during bacterial cell constriction, archaea only possess SepF-like homologs. Here, we combine structural, cellular, and evolutionary analyses to demonstrate that SepF is the FtsZ anchor in the human-associated archaeon Methanobrevibacter smithii. 3D super-resolution microscopy and quantitative analysis of immunolabeled cells show that SepF transiently co-localizes with FtsZ at the septum and possibly primes the future division plane. M. smithii SepF binds to membranes and to FtsZ, inducing filament bundling. High-resolution crystal structures of archaeal SepF alone and in complex with the FtsZ C-terminal domain (FtsZCTD) reveal that SepF forms a dimer with a homodimerization interface driving a binding mode that is different from that previously reported in bacteria. Phylogenetic analyses of SepF and FtsZ from bacteria and archaea indicate that the two proteins may date back to the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA), and we speculate that the archaeal mode of SepF/FtsZ interaction might reflect an ancestral feature. Our results provide insights into the mechanisms of archaeal cell division and pave the way for a better understanding of the processes underlying the divide between the two prokaryotic domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nika Pende
- Evolutionary Biology of the Microbial Cell Unit, CNRS UMR2001, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Adrià Sogues
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Daniela Megrian
- Evolutionary Biology of the Microbial Cell Unit, CNRS UMR2001, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- École Doctorale Complexité du vivant, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | | | - Patrick England
- Plate-forme de biophysique moléculaire, C2RT-Institut Pasteur, CNRS, UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - Hayk Palabikyan
- Archaea Physiology & Biotechnology Group, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Simon K-M R Rittmann
- Archaea Physiology & Biotechnology Group, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Martín Graña
- Bioinformatics Unit, Institut Pasteur of Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Anne Marie Wehenkel
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université de Paris, Paris, France.
| | - Pedro M Alzari
- Structural Microbiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR 3528, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Simonetta Gribaldo
- Evolutionary Biology of the Microbial Cell Unit, CNRS UMR2001, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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19
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Abstract
The division and cell wall (dcw) cluster is a highly conserved region of the bacterial genome consisting of genes that encode several cell division and cell wall synthesis factors, including the central division protein FtsZ. The region immediately downstream of ftsZ encodes the ylm genes and is conserved across diverse lineages of Gram-positive bacteria and Cyanobacteria In some organisms, this region remains part of the dcw cluster, but in others, it appears as an independent operon. A well-studied protein coded from this region is the positive FtsZ regulator SepF (YlmF), which anchors FtsZ to the membrane. Recent developments have shed light on the importance of SepF in a range of species. Additionally, new studies are highlighting the importance of the other conserved genes in this neighborhood. In this minireview, we aim to bring together the current research linking the ylm region to cell division and highlight further questions surrounding these conserved genes.
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20
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Bandekar AC, Subedi S, Ioerger TR, Sassetti CM. Cell-Cycle-Associated Expression Patterns Predict Gene Function in Mycobacteria. Curr Biol 2020; 30:3961-3971.e6. [PMID: 32916109 PMCID: PMC7578119 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.07.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Although the major events in prokaryotic cell cycle progression are likely to be coordinated with transcriptional and metabolic changes, these processes remain poorly characterized. Unlike many rapidly growing bacteria, DNA replication and cell division are temporally resolved in mycobacteria, making these slow-growing organisms a potentially useful system to investigate the prokaryotic cell cycle. To determine whether cell-cycle-dependent gene regulation occurs in mycobacteria, we characterized the temporal changes in the transcriptome of synchronously replicating populations of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). By enriching for genes that display a sinusoidal expression pattern, we discover 485 genes that oscillate with a period consistent with the cell cycle. During cytokinesis, the timing of gene induction could be used to predict the timing of gene function, as mRNA abundance was found to correlate with the order in which proteins were recruited to the developing septum. Similarly, the expression pattern of primary metabolic genes could be used to predict the relative importance of these pathways for different cell cycle processes. Pyrimidine synthetic genes peaked during DNA replication, and their depletion caused a filamentation phenotype that phenocopied defects in this process. In contrast, the inosine monophasphate dehydrogenase dedicated to guanosine synthesis, GuaB2, displayed the opposite expression pattern and its depletion perturbed septation. Together, these data imply obligate coordination between primary metabolism and cell division and identify periodically regulated genes that can be related to specific cell biological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya C Bandekar
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Sishir Subedi
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Thomas R Ioerger
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Christopher M Sassetti
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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21
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Essential dynamic interdependence of FtsZ and SepF for Z-ring and septum formation in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1641. [PMID: 32242019 PMCID: PMC7118173 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15490-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of Z-ring assembly and regulation in bacteria are poorly understood, particularly in non-model organisms. Actinobacteria, a large bacterial phylum that includes the pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, lack the canonical FtsZ-membrane anchors and Z-ring regulators described for E. coli. Here we investigate the physiological function of Corynebacterium glutamicum SepF, the only cell division-associated protein from Actinobacteria known to interact with the conserved C-terminal tail of FtsZ. We show an essential interdependence of FtsZ and SepF for formation of a functional Z-ring in C. glutamicum. The crystal structure of the SepF–FtsZ complex reveals a hydrophobic FtsZ-binding pocket, which defines the SepF homodimer as the functional unit, and suggests a reversible oligomerization interface. FtsZ filaments and lipid membranes have opposing effects on SepF polymerization, indicating that SepF has multiple roles at the cell division site, involving FtsZ bundling, Z-ring tethering and membrane reshaping activities that are needed for proper Z-ring assembly and function. The mechanisms of Z-ring assembly and regulation in bacteria are poorly understood, particularly in non-model organisms. Here, Sogues et al. study the interaction between FtsZ and SepF in Corynebacterium glutamicum, showing an essential interdependence of these proteins for formation of a functional Z-ring.
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22
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Tung QN, Busche T, Van Loi V, Kalinowski J, Antelmann H. The redox-sensing MarR-type repressor HypS controls hypochlorite and antimicrobial resistance in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 147:252-261. [PMID: 31887453 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
MarR-family transcription factors often control antioxidant enzymes, multidrug efflux pumps or virulence factors in bacterial pathogens and confer resistance towards oxidative stress and antibiotics. In this study, we have characterized the function and redox-regulatory mechanism of the MarR-type regulator HypS in Mycobacterium smegmatis. RNA-seq transcriptomics and qRT-PCR analyses of the hypS mutant revealed that hypS is autoregulated and represses transcription of the co-transcribed hypO gene which encodes a multidrug efflux pump. DNA binding activity of HypS to the 8-5-8 bp inverted repeat sequence upstream of the hypSO operon was inhibited under NaOCl stress. However, the HypSC58S mutant protein was not impaired in DNA-binding under NaOCl stress in vitro, indicating an important role of Cys58 in redox sensing of NaOCl stress. HypS was shown to be inactivated by Cys58-Cys58' intersubunit disulfide formation under HOCl stress, resulting in derepression of hypO transcription. Phenotype results revealed that the HypS regulon confers resistance towards HOCl, rifampicin and erythromycin stress. In conclusion, HypS was identified as a novel redox-sensitive repressor that contributes to mycobacterial resistance towards HOCl stress and antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quach Ngoc Tung
- Institute for Biology-Microbiology, Freie Universität Berlin, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tobias Busche
- Institute for Biology-Microbiology, Freie Universität Berlin, D-14195, Berlin, Germany; Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Vu Van Loi
- Institute for Biology-Microbiology, Freie Universität Berlin, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörn Kalinowski
- Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Haike Antelmann
- Institute for Biology-Microbiology, Freie Universität Berlin, D-14195, Berlin, Germany.
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23
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Zhang YW, Zhu JH, Wang ZQ, Wu Y, Meng X, Zheng X, Javid B. HspX promotes the polar localization of mycobacterial protein aggregates. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14571. [PMID: 31601950 PMCID: PMC6787098 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51132-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Misfolding of translated proteins occurs in all domains of life. In most cells, misfolded proteins coalesce in discrete aggregates at distinct cellular locations. In many bacteria, including mycobacteria, protein aggregates are located at the cellular pole. Yet the mechanism by which aggregates are sorted to the mycobacterial pole is not known. Here, we show that in Mycobacterium smegmatis, the small heat shock protein HspX plays a critical role in the polar localization of aggregates of a model fluorescent misfolded protein, GLR103. HspX itself has a polar localization, which is dependent on its N-terminal domain. In a strain deleted for hspX, GLR103 is less liable to aggregation and no longer localizes to the pole, and redirecting HspX to the septum radically disrupts the normal polar localization of GLR103 aggregates. To further investigate the role of HspX in native protein aggregation, we performed semi-quantitative mass-spectrometry of mycobacterial protein aggregates in wild-type, hspX-deleted and hspX-overexpressing strains. We identified a subset of proteins that appeared to be HspX-dependent for aggregate formation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that for validated native protein aggregates, sorting to the cellular pole following proteotoxic stress required HspX. In summary, we have identified the cellular function of HspX in Mycobacterium smegmatis as both a pro-aggregase and polar sortase.
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24
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Veyron-Churlet R, Locht C. In Vivo Methods to Study Protein-Protein Interactions as Key Players in Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Virulence. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8040173. [PMID: 31581602 PMCID: PMC6963305 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8040173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies on protein–protein interactions (PPI) can be helpful for the annotation of unknown protein functions and for the understanding of cellular processes, such as specific virulence mechanisms developed by bacterial pathogens. In that context, several methods have been extensively used in recent years for the characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis PPI to further decipher tuberculosis (TB) pathogenesis. This review aims at compiling the most striking results based on in vivo methods (yeast and bacterial two-hybrid systems, protein complementation assays) for the specific study of PPI in mycobacteria. Moreover, newly developed methods, such as in-cell native mass resonance and proximity-dependent biotinylation identification, will have a deep impact on future mycobacterial research, as they are able to perform dynamic (transient interactions) and integrative (multiprotein complexes) analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Veyron-Churlet
- Institut Pasteur de Lille, CHU Lille, CNRS, Inserm, Université de Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Camille Locht
- Institut Pasteur de Lille, CHU Lille, CNRS, Inserm, Université de Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
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25
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Application of the CRISPRi system to repress sepF expression in Mycobacterium smegmatis. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 72:183-190. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
How do mycobacteria divide? Cell division has been studied extensively in the model rod-shaped bacteria Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, but much less is understood about cell division in mycobacteria, a genus that includes the major human pathogens M. tuberculosis and M. leprae. In general, bacterial cell division requires the concerted effort of many proteins in both space and time to elongate the cell, replicate and segregate the chromosome, and construct and destruct the septum - processes which result in the creation of two new daughter cells. Here, we describe these distinct stages of cell division in B. subtilis and follow with the current knowledge in mycobacteria. As will become apparent, there are many differences between mycobacteria and B. subtilis in terms of both the broad outline of cell division and the molecular details. So, while the fundamental challenge of spatially and temporally organizing cell division is shared between these rod-shaped bacteria, they have solved these challenges in often vastly different ways.
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27
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Boldrin F, Anoosheh S, Serafini A, Cioetto Mazzabò L, Palù G, Provvedi R, Manganelli R. Improving the stability of the TetR/Pip-OFF mycobacterial repressible promoter system. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5783. [PMID: 30962489 PMCID: PMC6453970 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42319-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Tightly regulated gene expression systems are powerful tools to study essential genes and characterize potential drug targets. In a past work we reported the construction of a very stringent and versatile repressible promoter system for Mycobacterium tuberculosis based on two different repressors (TetR/Pip-OFF system). This system, causing the repression of the target gene in response to anhydrotetracycline (ATc), has been successfully used in several laboratories to characterize essential genes in different mycobacterial species both in vitro and in vivo. One of the limits of this system was its instability, leading to the selection of mutants in which the expression of the target gene was no longer repressible. In this paper we demonstrated that the instability was mainly due either to the loss of the integrative plasmid carrying the genes encoding the two repressors, or to the selection of a frameshift mutation in the gene encoding the repressors Pip. To solve these problems, we (i) constructed a new integrative vector in which the gene encoding the integrase was deleted to increase its stability, and (ii) developed a new integrative vector carrying the gene encoding Pip to introduce a second copy of this gene in the chromosome. The use of these new tools was shown to reduce drastically the selection of escape mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Boldrin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Saber Anoosheh
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town UCT, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Agnese Serafini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Mycobacterial Metabolism and Antibiotic Research Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | | | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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28
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Mu L, Zhou Q, Zhao Y, Liu X, Hu X. Graphene oxide quantum dots stimulate indigenous bacteria to remove oil contamination. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 366:694-702. [PMID: 30583239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.12.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Oil spills occur frequently worldwide, resulting in severe damage to water and to human health. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the primary toxic components in oil contamination. PAH-degrading microbes have attracted significant attention, but difficulty in their selection and proliferation limits their applications. Graphene oxide quantum dots (GOQDs) improve the proliferation of an indigenous PAH-degrading strain, Bacillus cereus, more effectively than large graphene oxide flakes. Bacillus cereus can metabolize a variety of xenobiotic aromatic compounds as carbon sources and is used in bioremediation. GOQDs contain a variety of aromatic hydrocarbon structures, explaining why the bacteria achieve strong tolerance to PAHs. GOQD-activated cytokinesis increases the secretion of substances important for biofilm formation (extracellular polymeric substances), which further accelerates PAH removal. Proteomic analysis reveals the molecular mechanisms underlying GOQD-induced microbial proliferation. GOQDs induce the overexpression of microbial divisomal proteins associated with division initiation, DNA replication and peptidoglycan hydrolysis/synthesis. Importantly, PAH removal mediated by GOQD-treated Bacillus cereus does not require the addition of GOQDs. The effects of GOQDs on a strain persist for at least 20 generations, suggesting their possible use in low-cost applications. This work proposes a strategy to remove oil contamination using an indigenous bacterial system enhanced by nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Mu
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Factors Control of Agro-Product Quality Safety (Ministry of Agriculture), Tianjin Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment and Safe-Product, Institute of Agro-Environmental Protection, Ministry of Agriculture, Tianjin 300191, China
| | - Qixing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yujie Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Factors Control of Agro-Product Quality Safety (Ministry of Agriculture), Tianjin Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment and Safe-Product, Institute of Agro-Environmental Protection, Ministry of Agriculture, Tianjin 300191, China
| | - Xiaowei Liu
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Factors Control of Agro-Product Quality Safety (Ministry of Agriculture), Tianjin Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment and Safe-Product, Institute of Agro-Environmental Protection, Ministry of Agriculture, Tianjin 300191, China.
| | - Xiangang Hu
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education)/Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China.
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29
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Yeast two-hybrid screening reveals a dual function for the histone acetyltransferase GcnE by controlling glutamine synthesis and development in Aspergillus fumigatus. Curr Genet 2018; 65:523-538. [DOI: 10.1007/s00294-018-0891-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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30
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Mutation of G51 in SepF impairs FtsZ assembly promoting ability of SepF and retards the division of Mycobacterium smegmatis cells. Biochem J 2018; 475:2473-2489. [PMID: 30006469 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The role of FtsZ-associated proteins in the regulation of the assembly dynamics of Mycobacterium smegmatis FtsZ is not clear. In this work, we examined the effect of M. smegmatis SepF on the assembly and stability of M. smegmatis FtsZ polymers. We discovered a single dominant point mutation in SepF (G51D or G51R) that renders the protein inactive. SepF promoted the polymerization of FtsZ, induced the bundling of FtsZ filaments, stabilized FtsZ filaments and reduced the GTPase activity of FtsZ. Surprisingly, both G51D-SepF and G51R-SepF neither stabilized FtsZ filaments nor showed a discernable effect on the GTPase activity of FtsZ. The binding affinity of SepF to FtsZ was found to be stronger than the binding affinity of G51R/D-SepF to FtsZ. Interestingly, the binding affinity of SepF to G51R-SepF was determined to be 45 times stronger than FtsZ. In addition, the interaction of SepF with G51R-SepF was found to be 2.6 times stronger than SepF-SepF interaction. Furthermore, G51R-SepF impaired the ability of SepF to promote the assembly of FtsZ. In addition, the overexpression of G51R-SepF in M. smegmatis mc2 155 cells retarded the proliferation of these cells and increased the average length of the cells. The results indicated that SepF positively regulates the assembly of M. smegmatis FtsZ and the G51 residue has an important role in the functioning of SepF.
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31
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Puffal J, García-Heredia A, Rahlwes KC, Siegrist MS, Morita YS. Spatial control of cell envelope biosynthesis in mycobacteria. Pathog Dis 2018; 76:4953754. [DOI: 10.1093/femspd/fty027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Puffal
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Alam García-Heredia
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Kathryn C Rahlwes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - M Sloan Siegrist
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Yasu S Morita
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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32
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Wagstaff J, Löwe J. Prokaryotic cytoskeletons: protein filaments organizing small cells. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018; 16:187-201. [PMID: 29355854 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2017.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Most, if not all, bacterial and archaeal cells contain at least one protein filament system. Although these filament systems in some cases form structures that are very similar to eukaryotic cytoskeletons, the term 'prokaryotic cytoskeletons' is used to refer to many different kinds of protein filaments. Cytoskeletons achieve their functions through polymerization of protein monomers and the resulting ability to access length scales larger than the size of the monomer. Prokaryotic cytoskeletons are involved in many fundamental aspects of prokaryotic cell biology and have important roles in cell shape determination, cell division and nonchromosomal DNA segregation. Some of the filament-forming proteins have been classified into a small number of conserved protein families, for example, the almost ubiquitous tubulin and actin superfamilies. To understand what makes filaments special and how the cytoskeletons they form enable cells to perform essential functions, the structure and function of cytoskeletal molecules and their filaments have been investigated in diverse bacteria and archaea. In this Review, we bring these data together to highlight the diverse ways that linear protein polymers can be used to organize other molecules and structures in bacteria and archaea.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Wagstaff
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Jan Löwe
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
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33
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Gao Y, Wenzel M, Jonker MJ, Hamoen LW. Free SepF interferes with recruitment of late cell division proteins. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16928. [PMID: 29209072 PMCID: PMC5717166 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17155-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The conserved cell division protein SepF aligns polymers of FtsZ, the key cell division protein in bacteria, during synthesis of the (Fts)Z-ring at midcell, the first stage in cytokinesis. In addition, SepF acts as a membrane anchor for the Z-ring. Recently, it was shown that SepF overexpression in Mycobacterium smegmatis blocks cell division. Why this is the case is not known. Surprisingly, we found in Bacillus subtilis that SepF overproduction does not interfere with Z-ring assembly, but instead blocks assembly of late division proteins responsible for septum synthesis. Transposon mutagenesis suggested that SepF overproduction suppresses the essential WalRK two-component system, which stimulates expression of ftsZ. Indeed, it emerged that SepF overproduction impairs normal WalK localization. However, transcriptome analysis showed that the WalRK activity was in fact not reduced in SepF overexpressing cells. Further experiments indicated that SepF competes with EzrA and FtsA for binding to FtsZ, and that binding of extra SepF by FtsZ alleviates the cell division defect. This may explain why activation of WalRK in the transposon mutant, which increases ftsZ expression, counteracts the division defect. In conclusion, our data shows that an imbalance in early cell division proteins can interfere with recruitment of late cell division proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongqiang Gao
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, O|2 Building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michaela Wenzel
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, O|2 Building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martijs J Jonker
- MicroArray Department and Integrative Bioinformatics Unit, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Sciencepark 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Leendert W Hamoen
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, O|2 Building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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34
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Boldrin F, Degiacomi G, Serafini A, Kolly GS, Ventura M, Sala C, Provvedi R, Palù G, Cole ST, Manganelli R. Promoter mutagenesis for fine-tuning expression of essential genes in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Microb Biotechnol 2017; 11:238-247. [PMID: 29076636 PMCID: PMC5743821 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A range of regulated gene expression systems has been developed for mycobacteria in the last few years to facilitate the study of essential genes, validate novel drug targets and evaluate their vulnerability. Among these, the TetR/Pip-OFF repressible promoter system was successfully used in several mycobacterial species both in vitro and in vivo. In the first version of the system, the repressible promoter was Pptr , a strong Pip-repressible promoter of Streptomyces pristinaespiralis, which might hamper effective downregulation of genes with a low basal expression level. Here, we report an enhanced system that allows more effective control of genes expressed at low level. To this end, we subjected Pptr to targeted mutagenesis and produced 16 different promoters with different strength. Three of them, weaker than the wild-type promoter, were selected and characterized showing that they can indeed improve the performances of TetR/Pip-OFF repressible system both in vitro and in vivo increasing its stringency. Finally, we used these promoters to construct a series of bacterial biosensors with different sensitivity to DprE1 inhibitors and developed a whole-cell screening assay to identify inhibitors of this enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Boldrin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Giulia Degiacomi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Agnese Serafini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Gaëlle S Kolly
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Global Health Institute, Station 19, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marcello Ventura
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Claudia Sala
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Global Health Institute, Station 19, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roberta Provvedi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Stewart T Cole
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Global Health Institute, Station 19, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Riccardo Manganelli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
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35
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Oliveira A, Oliveira LC, Aburjaile F, Benevides L, Tiwari S, Jamal SB, Silva A, Figueiredo HCP, Ghosh P, Portela RW, De Carvalho Azevedo VA, Wattam AR. Insight of Genus Corynebacterium: Ascertaining the Role of Pathogenic and Non-pathogenic Species. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1937. [PMID: 29075239 PMCID: PMC5643470 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This review gathers recent information about genomic and transcriptomic studies in the Corynebacterium genus, exploring, for example, prediction of pathogenicity islands and stress response in different pathogenic and non-pathogenic species. In addition, is described several phylogeny studies to Corynebacterium, exploring since the identification of species until biological speciation in one species belonging to the genus Corynebacterium. Important concepts associated with virulence highlighting the role of Pld protein and Tox gene. The adhesion, characteristic of virulence factor, was described using the sortase mechanism that is associated to anchorage to the cell wall. In addition, survival inside the host cell and some diseases, were too addressed for pathogenic corynebacteria, while important biochemical pathways and biotechnological applications retain the focus of this review for non-pathogenic corynebacteria. Concluding, this review broadly explores characteristics in genus Corynebacterium showing to have strong relevance inside the medical, veterinary, and biotechnology field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Oliveira
- Molecular and Cellular Laboratory, General Biology Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Leticia C Oliveira
- Molecular and Cellular Laboratory, General Biology Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Flavia Aburjaile
- Center of Genomics and System Biology, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - Leandro Benevides
- Molecular and Cellular Laboratory, General Biology Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Sandeep Tiwari
- Molecular and Cellular Laboratory, General Biology Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Syed B Jamal
- Molecular and Cellular Laboratory, General Biology Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Arthur Silva
- Center of Genomics and System Biology, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - Henrique C P Figueiredo
- Aquacen, National Reference Laboratory for Aquatic Animal Diseases, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Preetam Ghosh
- Department of Computational Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Ricardo W Portela
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Bióloga, Health Sciences Institute, Federal University of Bahiaa, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Vasco A De Carvalho Azevedo
- Molecular and Cellular Laboratory, General Biology Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Alice R Wattam
- Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
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36
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Labella JI, Cantos R, Espinosa J, Forcada-Nadal A, Rubio V, Contreras A. PipY, a Member of the Conserved COG0325 Family of PLP-Binding Proteins, Expands the Cyanobacterial Nitrogen Regulatory Network. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1244. [PMID: 28744260 PMCID: PMC5504682 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 is a paradigmatic model organism for nitrogen regulation in cyanobacteria. Expression of genes involved in nitrogen assimilation is positively regulated by the 2-oxoglutarate receptor and global transcriptional regulator NtcA. Maximal activation requires the subsequent binding of the co-activator PipX. PII, a protein found in all three domains of life as an integrator of signals of the nitrogen and carbon balance, binds to PipX to counteract NtcA activity at low 2-oxoglutarate levels. PII-PipX complexes can also bind to the transcriptional regulator PlmA, whose regulon remains unknown. Here we expand the nitrogen regulatory network to PipY, encoded by the bicistronic operon pipXY in S. elongatus. Work with PipY, the cyanobacterial member of the widespread family of COG0325 proteins, confirms the conserved roles in vitamin B6 and amino/keto acid homeostasis and reveals new PLP-related phenotypes, including sensitivity to antibiotics targeting essential PLP-holoenzymes or synthetic lethality with cysK. In addition, the related phenotypes of pipY and pipX mutants are consistent with genetic interactions in the contexts of survival to PLP-targeting antibiotics and transcriptional regulation. We also showed that PipY overexpression increased the length of S. elongatus cells. Taken together, our results support a universal regulatory role for COG0325 proteins, paving the way to a better understanding of these proteins and of their connections with other biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José I Labella
- Departamento de Fisiología, Genética y Microbiología, Universidad de AlicanteAlicante, Spain
| | - Raquel Cantos
- Departamento de Fisiología, Genética y Microbiología, Universidad de AlicanteAlicante, Spain
| | - Javier Espinosa
- Departamento de Fisiología, Genética y Microbiología, Universidad de AlicanteAlicante, Spain
| | - Alicia Forcada-Nadal
- Departamento de Fisiología, Genética y Microbiología, Universidad de AlicanteAlicante, Spain.,Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasValencia, Spain
| | - Vicente Rubio
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasValencia, Spain.,Group 739, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras - Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIValencia, Spain
| | - Asunción Contreras
- Departamento de Fisiología, Genética y Microbiología, Universidad de AlicanteAlicante, Spain
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37
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Two dynamin-like proteins stabilize FtsZ rings during Streptomyces sporulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E6176-E6183. [PMID: 28687675 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1704612114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During sporulation, the filamentous bacteria Streptomyces undergo a massive cell division event in which the synthesis of ladders of sporulation septa convert multigenomic hyphae into chains of unigenomic spores. This process requires cytokinetic Z-rings formed by the bacterial tubulin homolog FtsZ, and the stabilization of the newly formed Z-rings is crucial for completion of septum synthesis. Here we show that two dynamin-like proteins, DynA and DynB, play critical roles in this process. Dynamins are a family of large, multidomain GTPases involved in key cellular processes in eukaryotes, including vesicle trafficking and organelle division. Many bacterial genomes encode dynamin-like proteins, but the biological function of these proteins has remained largely enigmatic. Using a cell biological approach, we show that the two Streptomyces dynamins specifically localize to sporulation septa in an FtsZ-dependent manner. Moreover, dynamin mutants have a cell division defect due to the decreased stability of sporulation-specific Z-rings, as demonstrated by kymographs derived from time-lapse images of FtsZ ladder formation. This defect causes the premature disassembly of individual Z-rings, leading to the frequent abortion of septum synthesis, which in turn results in the production of long spore-like compartments with multiple chromosomes. Two-hybrid analysis revealed that the dynamins are part of the cell division machinery and that they mediate their effects on Z-ring stability during developmentally controlled cell division via a network of protein-protein interactions involving DynA, DynB, FtsZ, SepF, SepF2, and the FtsZ-positioning protein SsgB.
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38
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Du S, Lutkenhaus J. Assembly and activation of the Escherichia coli divisome. Mol Microbiol 2017; 105:177-187. [PMID: 28419603 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cell division in Escherichia coli is mediated by a large protein complex called the divisome. Most of the divisome proteins have been identified, but how they assemble onto the Z ring scaffold to form the divisome and work together to synthesize the septum is not well understood. In this review, we summarize the latest findings on divisome assembly and activation as well as provide our perspective on how these two processes might be regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shishen Du
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Joe Lutkenhaus
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
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39
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Lee DS, Kim Y, Lee HS. The whcD gene of Corynebacterium glutamicum plays roles in cell division and envelope formation. Microbiology (Reading) 2017; 163:131-143. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Seok Lee
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Korea University, 2511 Sejong-ro, Sejong-si 339-700, Republic of Korea
| | - Younhee Kim
- Department of Korean Medicine, Semyung University, 65 Semyung-ro, Jecheon-si, Chungbuk 390-711, Republic of Korea
| | - Heung-Shick Lee
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Korea University, 2511 Sejong-ro, Sejong-si 339-700, Republic of Korea
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40
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Gamba P, Hamoen LW, Daniel RA. Cooperative Recruitment of FtsW to the Division Site of Bacillus subtilis. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1808. [PMID: 27895631 PMCID: PMC5108771 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Five essential proteins are known to assemble at the division site of Bacillus subtilis. However, the recruitment of the FtsW homolog is still unclear. Here, we take advantage of spore germination to facilitate the depletion of essential proteins and to study the divisome assembly in the absence of previous division events. We show that, unlike what has been shown for the Escherichia coli divisome, the assembly of FtsW is interdependent with the localization of PBP 2B and FtsL, which are key components of the membrane bound division complex. Interestingly, the Z-ring appeared to disassemble upon prolonged depletion of late division proteins. Nevertheless, we could restore Z-ring formation and constriction by re-inducing FtsW, which suggests that the stability of the Z-ring is stimulated by the assembly of a functional division complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Gamba
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Leendert W Hamoen
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Richard A Daniel
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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41
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Haeusser DP, Margolin W. Splitsville: structural and functional insights into the dynamic bacterial Z ring. Nat Rev Microbiol 2016; 14:305-19. [PMID: 27040757 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria must divide to increase in number and colonize their niche. Binary fission is the most widespread means of bacterial cell division, but even this relatively simple mechanism has many variations on a theme. In most bacteria, the tubulin homologue FtsZ assembles into a ring structure, termed the Z ring, at the site of cytokinesis and recruits additional proteins to form a large protein machine - the divisome - that spans the membrane. In this Review, we discuss current insights into the regulation of the assembly of the Z ring and how the divisome drives membrane invagination and septal cell wall growth while flexibly responding to various cellular inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Haeusser
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Biology Department, Canisius College, 2001 Main Street, Buffalo, New York 14208, USA
| | - William Margolin
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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42
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Hutchison CA, Chuang RY, Noskov VN, Assad-Garcia N, Deerinck TJ, Ellisman MH, Gill J, Kannan K, Karas BJ, Ma L, Pelletier JF, Qi ZQ, Richter RA, Strychalski EA, Sun L, Suzuki Y, Tsvetanova B, Wise KS, Smith HO, Glass JI, Merryman C, Gibson DG, Venter JC. Design and synthesis of a minimal bacterial genome. Science 2016; 351:aad6253. [DOI: 10.1126/science.aad6253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 838] [Impact Index Per Article: 104.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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43
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Rismondo J, Cleverley RM, Lane HV, Großhennig S, Steglich A, Möller L, Mannala GK, Hain T, Lewis RJ, Halbedel S. Structure of the bacterial cell division determinant GpsB and its interaction with penicillin-binding proteins. Mol Microbiol 2015; 99:978-98. [PMID: 26575090 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Each bacterium has to co-ordinate its growth with division to ensure genetic stability of the population. Consequently, cell division and growth are tightly regulated phenomena, albeit different bacteria utilise one of several alternative regulatory mechanisms to maintain control. Here we consider GpsB, which is linked to cell growth and division in Gram-positive bacteria. ΔgpsB mutants of the human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes show severe lysis, division and growth defects due to distortions of cell wall biosynthesis. Consistent with this premise, GpsB interacts both in vitro and in vivo with the major bi-functional penicillin-binding protein. We solved the crystal structure of GpsB and the interaction interfaces in both proteins are identified and validated. The inactivation of gpsB results in strongly attenuated virulence in animal experiments, comparable in degree to classical listerial virulence factor mutants. Therefore, GpsB is essential for in vitro and in vivo growth of a highly virulent food-borne pathogen, suggesting that GpsB could be a target for the future design of novel antibacterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanine Rismondo
- FG11 Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Robert M Cleverley
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Harriet V Lane
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Stephanie Großhennig
- FG11 Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany.,Department of General Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anne Steglich
- FG11 Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Lars Möller
- ZBS 4 - Advanced Light and Electron Microscopy, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Torsten Hain
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Richard J Lewis
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Sven Halbedel
- FG11 Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
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44
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Gaiwala Sharma SS, Kishore V, Raghunand TR. Identification and functional annotation of mycobacterial septum formation genes using cell division mutants of Escherichia coli. Res Microbiol 2015; 167:142-8. [PMID: 26577656 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2015.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The major virulence trait of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is its ability to enter a latent state in the face of robust host immunity. Clues to the molecular basis of latency can emerge from understanding the mechanism of cell division, beginning with identification of proteins involved in this process. Using complementation of Escherichia coli mutants, we functionally annotated M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium smegmatis homologs of divisome proteins FtsW and AmiC. Our results demonstrate that E. coli can be used as a surrogate model to discover mycobacterial cell division genes, and should prove invaluable in delineating the mechanisms of this fundamental process in mycobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vimal Kishore
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India.
| | - Tirumalai R Raghunand
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India.
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45
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Ortiz C, Natale P, Cueto L, Vicente M. The keepers of the ring: regulators of FtsZ assembly. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2015; 40:57-67. [PMID: 26377318 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuv040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
FtsZ, a GTPase distributed in the cytoplasm of most bacteria, is the major component of the machinery responsible for division (the divisome) in Escherichia coli. It interacts with additional proteins that contribute to its function forming a ring at the midcell that is essential to constrict the membrane. FtsZ is indirectly anchored to the membrane and it is prevented from polymerizing at locations where septation is undesired. Several properties of FtsZ are mediated by other proteins that function as keepers of the ring. ZipA and FtsA serve to anchor the ring, and together with a set of Zap proteins, they stabilize it. The MinCDE and SlmA proteins prevent the polymerization of FtsZ at sites other than the midcell. Finally, ClpP degrades FtsZ, an action prevented by ZipA. Many of the FtsZ keepers interact with FtsZ through a central hub located at its carboxy terminal end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ortiz
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), C/ Darwin 3, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Paolo Natale
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), C/ Darwin 3, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Laura Cueto
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), C/ Darwin 3, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Miguel Vicente
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), C/ Darwin 3, Madrid 28049, Spain
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