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Islam T, Haque MA, Barai HR, Istiaq A, Kim JJ. Antibiotic Resistance in Plant Pathogenic Bacteria: Recent Data and Environmental Impact of Unchecked Use and the Potential of Biocontrol Agents as an Eco-Friendly Alternative. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:1135. [PMID: 38674544 PMCID: PMC11054394 DOI: 10.3390/plants13081135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The economic impact of phytopathogenic bacteria on agriculture is staggering, costing billions of US dollars globally. Pseudomonas syringae is the top most phytopathogenic bacteria, having more than 60 pathovars, which cause bacteria speck in tomatoes, halo blight in beans, and so on. Although antibiotics or a combination of antibiotics are used to manage infectious diseases in plants, they are employed far less in agriculture compared to human and animal populations. Moreover, the majority of antibiotics used in plants are immediately washed away, leading to environmental damage to ecosystems and food chains. Due to the serious risk of antibiotic resistance (AR) and the potential for environmental contamination with antibiotic residues and resistance genes, the use of unchecked antibiotics against phytopathogenic bacteria is not advisable. Despite the significant concern regarding AR in the world today, there are inadequate and outdated data on the AR of phytopathogenic bacteria. This review presents recent AR data on plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB), along with their environmental impact. In light of these findings, we suggest the use of biocontrol agents as a sustainable, eco-friendly, and effective alternative to controlling phytopathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarequl Islam
- Department of Microbiology, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Sonapur, Noakhali 3814, Bangladesh;
| | - Md Azizul Haque
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hasi Rani Barai
- School of Mechanical and IT Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
| | - Arif Istiaq
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110-1010, USA
| | - Jong-Joo Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
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Wang C, Zhang D, Cheng J, Zhao D, Pan Y, Li Q, Zhu J, Yang Z, Wang J. Identification of effector CEP112 that promotes the infection of necrotrophic Alternaria solani. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 22:466. [PMID: 36171557 PMCID: PMC9520946 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-022-03845-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alternaria solani is a typical necrotrophic pathogen that can cause severe early blight on Solanaceae crops and cause ring disease on plant leaves. Phytopathogens produce secretory effectors that regulate the host immune response and promote pathogenic infection. Effector proteins, as specialized secretions of host-infecting pathogens, play important roles in disrupting host defense systems. At present, the role of the effector secreted by A. solani during infection remains unclear. We report the identification and characterization of AsCEP112, an effector required for A. solani virulence. RESULT The AsCEP112 gene was screened from the transcriptome and genome of A. solani on the basis of typical effector signatures. Fluorescence quantification and transient expression analysis showed that the expression level of AsCEP112 continued to increase during infection. The protein localized to the cell membrane of Nicotiana benthamiana and regulated senescence-related genes, resulting in the chlorosis of N. benthamiana and tomato leaves. Moreover, comparative analysis of AsCEP112 mutant obtained by homologous recombination with wild-type and revertant strains indicated that AsCEP112 gene played an active role in regulating melanin formation and penetration in the pathogen. Deletion of AsCEP112 also reduced the pathogenicity of HWC-168. CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrate that AsCEP112 was an important effector protein that targeted host cell membranes. AsCEP112 regulateed host senescence-related genes to control host leaf senescence and chlorosis, and contribute to pathogen virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China
| | - Dai Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianing Cheng
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongmei Zhao
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Pan
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Li
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiehua Zhu
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China.
- Technological Innovation Center for Biological Control of Crop Diseases and Insect Pests of Hebei Province, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhihui Yang
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China.
- Technological Innovation Center for Biological Control of Crop Diseases and Insect Pests of Hebei Province, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jinhui Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China.
- Technological Innovation Center for Biological Control of Crop Diseases and Insect Pests of Hebei Province, Baoding, 071001, People's Republic of China.
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Bréard D, Barrit T, Sochard D, Aligon S, Planchet E, Teulat B, Le Corff J, Campion C, Guilet D. Development of a quantification method for routine analysis of glucosinolates and camalexin in brassicaceous small-sized samples by simultaneous extraction prior to liquid chromatography determination. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1205:123348. [PMID: 35777257 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Glucosinolates and camalexin are secondary metabolites that, as phytoanticipins and phytoalexins, play a crucial role in plant defence. The present work proposes an improved analytical method for routine analysis and quantification of glucosinolates and camalexin in brassicaceous small-sized samples by using the very specific desulfation process of glucosinolates analysis and the specificity of fluorescence detection for camalexin analysis. The approach is based on a simultaneous ultrasound-assisted extraction followed by a purification on an anion-exchange column. Final analyses are conducted by HPLC-UV-MS for desulfo-glucosinolates and HPLC coupled to a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) for camalexin. The method is linear for glucosinolates (50-3500 µM) and camalexin (0.025-5 µg.mL-1) with an LOD/LOQ of 3.8/12.6 µM and 0.014/0.046 µg.mL-1 respectively. The method demonstrated adequate precision, accuracy and trueness on certified reference rapeseed. A practical application of our approach was conducted on different Brassicaceae genera (Barbarea vulgaris, Brassica nigra, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Cardamine hirsuta, Coincya monensis, Sinapis arvensis, and Sisymbrium officinale) and Arabidopsis thaliana genotypes (Columbia and Wassilewskija). Futhermore, different plant organs (seeds and leaves) were analysed, previously inoculated or not with the pathogenic fungus Alternaria brassicicola.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thibault Barrit
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Daniel Sochard
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Sophie Aligon
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Elisabeth Planchet
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Béatrice Teulat
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Josiane Le Corff
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Claire Campion
- Univ Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - David Guilet
- Univ Angers, SONAS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France
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4
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Wu HY, Lai EM. AGROBEST: A Highly Efficient Agrobacterium-Mediated Transient Expression System in Arabidopsis Seedlings. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2379:113-123. [PMID: 35188659 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1791-5_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Agrobacterium-mediated transient transformation for gene expression is a simple and fast method to analyze transgene functions in plants. Agroinfiltration in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana is a common method for transient expression. However, agroinfiltration in leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana is challenging due to the low and variable efficiency. Here, we describe procedures of a highly efficient and robust Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression system, named AGROBEST (Agrobacterium-mediated enhanced seedling transformation) for gene expression in A. thaliana seedlings. High efficiency of AGROBEST has been achieved by virulence (vir) gene pre-induction of a specific disarmed Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain C58C1(pTiB6S3ΔT)H followed by co-cultivation with Arabidopsis seedlings in an optimized medium with AB salts and buffered acidic plant culture medium. The stable acidic medium largely increases Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression levels and reduces plant defense responses, suggesting that AGROBEST enables high transient expression efficiency by compromising plant immunity. In summary, AGROBEST is a simple, fast, reliable, and robust transient expression system offering a quick and convenient method to observe protein localization, protein-protein interactions, promoter activities, and gene functional studies in Arabidopsis seedlings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung-Yi Wu
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Erh-Min Lai
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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5
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Makhazen DS, Veremeichik GN, Shkryl YN, Tchernoded GK, Grigorchuk VP, Bulgakov VP. Inhibition of the JAZ1 gene causes activation of camalexin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis callus cultures. J Biotechnol 2021; 342:102-113. [PMID: 34736953 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2021.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Indole alkaloid camalexin has potential medicinal properties such as suppressing the viability of leukemic but not normal cells. Camalexin is not produced in plants and an external factor is required to activate its biosynthesis. In this work, we stimulated camalexin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis calli by blocking one of repressors of the jasmonate pathway, the jasmonate ZIM-domain protein 1 (JAZ1) by using amiRNA targeting JAZ1 gene transcripts. Inhibition of the JAZ1 gene led to an increase in camalexin content from trace amounts in control culture to 9 µg/g DW in the jaz1 line without affecting growth. In addition, JAZ1 silencing enhanced tolerance to cold stress with simultaneous increasing camalexin content up to 30 µg/g DW. Real-time quantitative PCR determination of marker gene expression showed that effects caused by the JAZ1 silencing might be realized through crosslinking JA, ROS, and abscisic acid signaling pathways. Thus, targeting the distal components of signaling pathways can be suggested as a tool for bioengineering of secondary metabolism, along with standard techniques for targeting biosynthetic genes or genes encoding transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Makhazen
- Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity of the Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - G N Veremeichik
- Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity of the Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
| | - Y N Shkryl
- Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity of the Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
| | - G K Tchernoded
- Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity of the Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
| | - V P Grigorchuk
- Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity of the Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
| | - V P Bulgakov
- Federal Scientific Center of the East Asia Terrestrial Biodiversity of the Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
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Xu N, Yang Q, Yang X, Wang M, Guo M. Reconstruction and analysis of a genome-scale metabolic model for Agrobacterium tumefaciens. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2021; 22:348-360. [PMID: 33433944 PMCID: PMC7865084 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes crown gall disease and is a widely used tool for generating transgenic plants owing to its virulence. The pathogenic process involves a shift from an independent to a living form within a host plant. However, comprehensive analyses of metabolites, genes, and reactions contributing to this complex process are lacking. To gain new insights about the pathogenicity from the viewpoints of physiology and cellular metabolism, a genome-scale metabolic model (GSMM) was reconstructed for A. tumefaciens. The model, referred to as iNX1344, contained 1,344 genes, 1,441 reactions, and 1,106 metabolites. It was validated by analyses of in silico cell growth on 39 unique carbon or nitrogen sources and the flux distribution of carbon metabolism. A. tumefaciens metabolic characteristics under three ecological niches were modelled. A high capacity to access and metabolize nutrients is more important for rhizosphere colonization than in the soil, and substantial metabolic changes were detected during the shift from the rhizosphere to tumour environments. Furthermore, by integrating transcriptome data for tumour conditions, significant alterations in central metabolic pathways and secondary metabolite metabolism were identified. Overall, the GSMM and constraint-based analysis could decode the physiological and metabolic features of A. tumefaciens as well as interspecific interactions with hosts, thereby improving our understanding of host adaptation and infection mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Xu
- College of Bioscience and BiotechnologyYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Qiyuan Yang
- College of Bioscience and BiotechnologyYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Xiaojing Yang
- College of Bioscience and BiotechnologyYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Mingqi Wang
- College of Bioscience and BiotechnologyYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
| | - Minliang Guo
- College of Bioscience and BiotechnologyYangzhou UniversityYangzhouChina
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7
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Huang FC, Hwang HH. Arabidopsis RETICULON-LIKE4 (RTNLB4) Protein Participates in Agrobacterium Infection and VirB2 Peptide-Induced Plant Defense Response. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051722. [PMID: 32138311 PMCID: PMC7084338 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens uses the type IV secretion system, which consists of VirB1-B11 and VirD4 proteins, to deliver effectors into plant cells. The effectors manipulate plant proteins to assist in T-DNA transfer, integration, and expression in plant cells. The Arabidopsis reticulon-like (RTNLB) proteins are located in the endoplasmic reticulum and are involved in endomembrane trafficking in plant cells. The rtnlb4 mutants were recalcitrant to A. tumefaciens infection, but overexpression of RTNLB4 in transgenic plants resulted in hypersusceptibility to A. tumefaciens transformation, which suggests the involvement of RTNLB4 in A. tumefaciens infection. The expression of defense-related genes, including FRK1, PR1, WRKY22, and WRKY29, were less induced in RTNLB4 overexpression (O/E) transgenic plants after A. tumefaciens elf18 peptide treatment. Pretreatment with elf18 peptide decreased Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression efficiency more in wild-type seedlings than RTNLB4 O/E transgenic plants, which suggests that the induced defense responses in RTNLB4 O/E transgenic plants might be affected after bacterial elicitor treatments. Similarly, A. tumefaciens VirB2 peptide pretreatment reduced transient T-DNA expression in wild-type seedlings to a greater extent than in RTNLB4 O/E transgenic seedlings. Furthermore, the VirB2 peptides induced FRK1, WRKY22, and WRKY29 gene expression in wild-type seedlings but not efr-1 and bak1 mutants. The induced defense-related gene expression was lower in RTNLB4 O/E transgenic plants than wild-type seedlings after VirB2 peptide treatment. These data suggest that RTNLB4 may participate in elf18 and VirB2 peptide-induced defense responses and may therefore affect the A. tumefaciens infection process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan-Chen Huang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan;
- Ph.D. Program in Microbial Genomics, National Chung Hsing University and Academia Sinica, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Hau-Hsuan Hwang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan;
- Ph.D. Program in Microbial Genomics, National Chung Hsing University and Academia Sinica, Taichung 402, Taiwan
- Innovation and Development Center of Sustainable Agriculture, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-4-2284-0416-412
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8
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Meyer T, Thiour-Mauprivez C, Wisniewski-Dyé F, Kerzaon I, Comte G, Vial L, Lavire C. Ecological Conditions and Molecular Determinants Involved in Agrobacterium Lifestyle in Tumors. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:978. [PMID: 31417593 PMCID: PMC6683767 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The study of pathogenic agents in their natural niches allows for a better understanding of disease persistence and dissemination. Bacteria belonging to the Agrobacterium genus are soil-borne and can colonize the rhizosphere. These bacteria are also well known as phytopathogens as they can cause tumors (crown gall disease) by transferring a DNA region (T-DNA) into a wide range of plants. Most reviews on Agrobacterium are focused on virulence determinants, T-DNA integration, bacterial and plant factors influencing the efficiency of genetic transformation. Recent research papers have focused on the plant tumor environment on the one hand, and genetic traits potentially involved in bacterium-plant interactions on the other hand. The present review gathers current knowledge about the special conditions encountered in the tumor environment along with the Agrobacterium genetic determinants putatively involved in bacterial persistence inside a tumor. By integrating recent metabolomic and transcriptomic studies, we describe how tumors develop and how Agrobacterium can maintain itself in this nutrient-rich but stressful and competitive environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Meyer
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Clémence Thiour-Mauprivez
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
- Biocapteurs-Analyses-Environment, Universite de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
- Laboratoire de Biodiversite et Biotechnologies Microbiennes, USR 3579 Sorbonne Universites (UPMC) Paris 6 et CNRS Observatoire Oceanologique, Paris, France
| | | | - Isabelle Kerzaon
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Gilles Comte
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Ludovic Vial
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Céline Lavire
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
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Zuniga-Soto E, Fitzpatrick DA, Doohan FM, Mullins E. Insights into the transcriptomic response of the plant engineering bacterium Ensifer adhaerens OV14 during transformation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10344. [PMID: 31316079 PMCID: PMC6637203 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44648-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to engineer plant genomes has been primarily driven by the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens but recently the potential of alternative rhizobia such as Rhizobium etli and Ensifer adhaerens OV14, the latter of which supports Ensifer Mediated Transformation (EMT) has been reported. Surprisingly, a knowledge deficit exists in regards to understanding the whole genome processes underway in plant transforming bacteria, irrespective of the species. To begin to address the issue, we undertook a temporal RNAseq-based profiling study of E. adhaerens OV14 in the presence/absence of Arabidopsis thaliana tissues. Following co-cultivation with root tissues, 2333 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were noted. Meta-analysis of the RNAseq data sets identified a clear shift from plasmid-derived gene expression to chromosomal-based transcription within the early stages of bacterium-plant co-cultivation. During this time, the number of differentially expressed prokaryotic genes increased steadily out to 7 days co-cultivation, a time at which optimum rates of transformation were observed. Gene ontology evaluations indicated a role for both chromosomal and plasmid-based gene families linked specifically with quorum sensing, flagellin production and biofilm formation in the process of EMT. Transcriptional evaluation of vir genes, housed on the pCAMBIA 5105 plasmid in E. adhaerens OV14 confirmed the ability of E. adhaerens OV14 to perceive and activate its transcriptome in response to the presence of 200 µM of acetosyringone. Significantly, this is the first study to characterise the whole transcriptomic response of a plant engineering bacterium in the presence of plant tissues and provides a novel insight into prokaryotic genetic processes that support T-DNA transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Zuniga-Soto
- Department of Crop Science, Teagasc Crops Research Centre, Oak Park, Carlow, Ireland
- School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - David A Fitzpatrick
- Department of Biology, National University of Ireland Maynooth, Maynooth, Ireland
| | - Fiona M Doohan
- School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Ewen Mullins
- Department of Crop Science, Teagasc Crops Research Centre, Oak Park, Carlow, Ireland.
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