The β5 subunit is essential for intact 26S proteasome assembly to specifically promote plant autotrophic growth under salt stress

Comparative proteomic discovery of salt stress response in alfalfa roots and overexpression of MsANN2 confers salt tolerance

Soil salinity constrains growth, development and yield of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). To illustrate the molecular mechanisms responsible for salt tolerance, a comparative proteome analysis was explored to characterize protein profiles of alfalfa seedling roots exposed to 100 and 200 mM NaCl for three weeks. There were 52 differentially expressed proteins identified, among which the mRNA expressions of 12 were verified by Real-Time-PCR analysis. The results showed increase in abundance of ascorbate peroxidase, POD, CBS protein and PR-10 in salt-stressed alfalfa, suggesting an effectively antioxidant and defense systems. Alfalfa enhanced protein quality control system to refold or degrade abnormal proteins induced by salt stress through upregulation of unfolded protein response (UPR) marker PDIs and molecular chaperones (eg. HSP70, TCP-1, and GroES) as well as the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) including ubiquitin ligase enzyme (E3) and proteasome subunits. Upregulation of proteins responsible for calcium signal transduction including calmodulin and annexin helped alfalfa adapt to salt stress. Specifically, annexin (MsANN2), a key Ca2+-binding protein, was selected for further characterization. The heterologous of the MsANN2 in Arabidopsis conferred salt tolerance. These results provide detailed information for salt-responsive root proteins and highlight the importance of MsANN2 in adapting to salt stress in alfalfa.

Proteasome resides in and dismantles plant heat stress granules constitutively

Stress granules (SGs) are conserved reversible cytoplasmic condensates enriched with aggregation-prone proteins assembled in response to various stresses. How plants regulate SG dynamics is unclear. Here, we show that 26S proteasome is a stable component of SGs, promoting the overall clearance of SGs without affecting the molecular mobility of SG components. Increase in either temperature or duration of heat stress reduces the molecular mobility of SG marker proteins and suppresses SG clearance. Heat stress induces dramatic ubiquitylation of SG components and enhances the activities of SG-resident proteasomes, allowing the degradation of SG components even during the assembly phase. Their proteolytic activities enable the timely disassembly of SGs and secure the survival of plant cells during the recovery from heat stress. Therefore, our findings identify the cellular process that de-couples macroscopic dynamics of SGs from the molecular dynamics of its constituents and highlights the significance of the proteasomes in SG disassembly.

In silico identification of 20S proteasome-β5 subunit inhibitors using structure-based virtual screening

Proteasome inhibitors have effective anti-tumor activity in cell culture and can induce apoptosis by interfering with the degradation of cell cycle proteins. 20S Proteasome is acknowledged to be a satisfactory target that has persistent properties against the human immune defense and is obligatory for the degradation of some vital proteins. This study aimed to identify potential inhibitors against 20S proteasome, specifically the β5 subunit, using structure-based virtual screening and molecular docking to reduce the number of ligands that should be eligible for experimental assays. A total of 4961 molecules with anticancer activity were screened from the ASINEX database. The filtered compounds that showed higher docking affinity were then used in more sophisticated molecular docking simulations with AutoDock Vina for validation. Finally, six drug molecules (BDE 28974746, BDE 25657353, BDE 29746159, BDD 27844484, BDE 29746109, and BDE 29746162) exhibited highly significant interactions compared to the positive controls were retained. Among these six molecules, three molecules (BDE 28974746, BDE 25657353, and BDD 27844484) showed high binding affinity and binding energy compared with Carfilzomib and Bortezomib. Molecular simulation and dynamics studies of the top three drug molecules in each case allowed us to draw further conclusions about their stability with the β5 subunit. Computed absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity studies on these derivatives showed encouraging results with very low toxicity, distribution, and absorption. These compounds may serve as potential hits for further biological evaluation in the development of new proteasome inhibitors.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The ubiquitin-proteasome system in the plant response to abiotic stress: Potential role in crop resilience improvement

The post-translational modification (PTM) of proteins by ubiquitination modulates many physiological processes in plants. As the major protein degradation pathway in plants, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is considered a promising target for improving crop tolerance drought, high salinity, extreme temperatures, and other abiotic stressors. The UPS also participates in abiotic stress-related abscisic acid (ABA) signaling. E3 ligases are core components of the UPS-mediated modification process due to their substrate specificity. In this review, we focus on the abiotic stress-associated regulatory mechanisms and functions of different UPS components, emphasizing the participation of E3 ubiquitin ligases. We also summarize and discuss UPS-mediated modulation of ABA signaling. In particular, we focus our review on recent research into the UPS-mediated modulation of the abiotic stress response in major crop plants. We propose that altering the ubiquitination site of the substrate or the substrate-specificity of E3 ligase using genome editing technology such as CRISPR/Cas9 may improve the resistance of crop plants to adverse environmental conditions. Such a strategy will require continued research into the role of the UPS in mediating the abiotic stress response in plants.

Tobacco NtUBC1 and NtUBQ2 enhance salt tolerance by reducing sodium accumulation and oxidative stress through proteasome activation in Arabidopsis

The ubiquitin/proteasome system plays a crucial role in the regulation of plant responses to environmental stress. Here, we studied the involvement of the UBC1 and UBQ2 genes encoding a ubiquitin conjugating enzyme (E2) and ubiquitin extension protein, respectively, in the response to salt stress. Our results showed that the constitutive expression of tobacco NtUBC1 and NtUBQ2 in Arabidopsis thaliana improved salt tolerance, along with the lower Na+ level and higher K+/Na+ ratio compared to control plants. Moreover, the expression levels of sodium transporters, including AtHKT1 (High-Affinity K+ Transporter1) and AtSOS1 (Salt Overly Sensitive 1), were higher in NtUBC1- and NtUBQ2-Arabidopsis. However, the transcript level of AtNHX1 (Na+/H+ Exchanger 1) was similar between control and transgenic plants. After salt exposure, the activity of the 26S proteasome markedly increased in NtUBC1- and NtUBQ2-expressing plants; however, ubiquitinated protein levels decreased compared to control plants. Furthermore, higher activity of antioxidant enzymes and lower ROS production were observed in UBC1- and UBQ2-expressing plants. We further challenged atubc1, atubc2, and atubq2 single mutants and atubc1ubc2 double mutant lines with salt stress; interestingly, the salt sensitivity and sodium levels of the studied mutants were enhanced, while the potassium levels were reduced. However, the atubc1ubc2 double mutant illustrated a more severe phenotype than the single mutants, probably due to the redundant function of UBC1 and UBC2 in Arabidopsis. Taken together, NtUBC1 and NtUBQ2 enhance salt tolerance by enhancing 26S proteasome activity and reducing Na+ accumulation, ROS, and ubiquitinated/salt-denatured proteins.

The regulation of RGLG2-VWA by Ca2+ ions

RGLG2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase in Arabidopsis thaliana, affects hormone signaling and participates in drought regulation. Here, we determined two crystal structures of RGLG2 VWA domain, representing two conformations, open and closed, respectively. The two structures reveal that Ca2+ ions are allosteric regulators of RGLG2-VWA, which adopts open state when NCBS1(Novel Calcium ions Binding Site 1) binds Ca2+ ions and switches to closed state after Ca2+ ions are removed. This mechanism of allosteric regulation is identical to RGLG1-VWA, but distinct from integrin α and β VWA domains. Therefore, our data provide a backdrop for understanding the role of the Ca2+ ions in conformational change of VWA domain. In addition, we found that RGLG2closed, corresponding to low affinity, can bind pseudo-ligand, which has never been observed in other VWA domains.

Genome-wide identification of PYL/PYR-PP2C (A)-SnRK2 genes in Eutrema and their co-expression analysis in response to ABA and abiotic stresses

ABA signaling core components PYR/PYL, group A PP2C and SnRK2 play important roles in various environmental stress responses of plants. This study identified 14 PYR/PYL, 9 PP2C (A), and 10 SnRK2 genes from halophytic Eutrema. Phylogenetic analysis showed 4 EsPYR/PYL, 4 EsPP2C (A) and 3 EsSnRK2 subfamilies characterized, which was supported by their gene structures and protein motifs. Large-scale segmental duplication event was demonstrated to be a major contributor to expansion of the EsPYL-PP2C (A)-SnRK2 gene families. Synteny relationship analysis revealed more orthologous PYL-PP2C (A)-SnRK2 gene pairs located in collinear blocks between Eutrema and Brassica than that between Eutrema and Arabidopsis. RNA-seq and qRT-PCR revealed EsABI1, EsABI2 and EsHAL2 showed a significantly up-regulated expression in leaves and roots in response to ABA, NaCl or cold stress. Three markedly co-expression modules of ABA/R-brown, NaCl/L-lightsteelblue1 and Cold/R-lightgreen were uncovered to contain EsPYL-PP2C (A)-SnRK2 genes by WGCNA analysis. GO and KEGG analysis indicated that the genes of ABA/R-brown module containing EsHAB1, EsHAI2 and EsSnRK2.6 were enriched in proteasome pathway. Further, EsHAI2-OE transgenic Arabidopsis lines showed significantly enhanced seeds germination and seedlings growth. This work provides a new insight for elucidating potential molecular functions of PYL-PP2C (A)-SnRK2 responding to ABA and abiotic stresses.

Identification and functional characterization of REGULATORY PARTICLE NON-ATPASE 1a-like (AhRPN1a-like) in peanuts during aluminum-induced programmed cell death

The toxicity of aluminum (Al) in acidic soil is a prevalent problem and causes reduced crop yields. In the plant response to Al toxicity, programmed cell death (PCD) appears to be one of the important mechanisms. However, the regulation of Al-induced PCD remains poorly understood. Here, we found that an uncharacterized protein REGULATORY PARTICLE NON-ATPASE 1a-like in peanut (AhRPN1a-like), located in the nucleus and cytoplasm, directly interacted with type I metacaspase in peanut (AhMC1). The overexpression of AhRPN1a-like in Arabidopsis strongly enhanced Al inhibition of root growth with a loss of root tip cell viability. Furthermore, in response to Al treatment, the VIGS knockdown line of AhRPN1a-like in peanut displayed decreased transcription of AhMC1, increased root growth, reduced Al-induced PCD and decreased 26S proteasomal activity. Taken together, these findings demonstrated that AhRPN1a-like interacted directly with AhMC1, and promotes the occurrence of Al-induced PCD via the 26S proteasome pathway, thereby reducing Al-resistance.

Proteome Dynamics of Persulfidation in Leaf Tissue under Light/Dark Conditions and Carbon Deprivation

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) acts as a signaling molecule in plants, bacteria, and mammals, regulating various physiological and pathological processes. The molecular mechanism by which hydrogen sulfide exerts its action involves the posttranslational modification of cysteine residues to form a persulfidated thiol motif. This research aimed to study the regulation of protein persulfidation. We used a label-free quantitative approach to measure the protein persulfidation profile in leaves under different growth conditions such as light regimen and carbon deprivation. The proteomic analysis identified a total of 4599 differentially persulfidated proteins, of which 1115 were differentially persulfidated between light and dark conditions. The 544 proteins that were more persulfidated in the dark were analyzed, and showed significant enrichment in functions and pathways related to protein folding and processing in the endoplasmic reticulum. Under light conditions, the persulfidation profile changed, and the number of differentially persulfidated proteins increased up to 913, with the proteasome and ubiquitin-dependent and ubiquitin-independent catabolic processes being the most-affected biological processes. Under carbon starvation conditions, a cluster of 1405 proteins was affected by a reduction in their persulfidation, being involved in metabolic processes that provide primary metabolites to essential energy pathways and including enzymes involved in sulfur assimilation and sulfide production.

RNA-binding protein MAC5A interacts with the 26S proteasome to regulate DNA damage response in Arabidopsis

DNA damage response (DDR) in eukaryotes is essential for the maintenance of genome integrity in challenging environments. The regulatory mechanisms of DDR have been well-established in yeast and humans. However, increasing evidence supports the idea that plants seem to employ different signaling pathways that remain largely unknown. Here, we report the role of MODIFIER OF SNC1, 4-ASSOCIATED COMPLEX SUBUNIT 5A (MAC5A) in DDR in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Lack of MAC5A in mac5a mutants causes hypersensitive phenotypes to methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), a DNA damage inducer. Consistent with this observation, MAC5A can regulate alternative splicing of DDR genes to maintain the proper response to genotoxic stress. Interestingly, MAC5A interacts with the 26S proteasome (26SP) and is required for its proteasome activity. MAC core subunits are also involved in MMS-induced DDR. Moreover, we find that MAC5A, the MAC core subunits, and 26SP may act collaboratively to mediate high-boron-induced growth repression through DDR. Collectively, our findings uncover the crucial role of MAC in MMS-induced DDR in orchestrating growth and stress adaptation in plants.

A Pipeline to Monitor Proteasome Homeostasis in Plants

The proteasome is a key component for regulation of protein turnover across kingdoms. The proteasome has been shown to be involved in or affected by various stress conditions in multiple model organisms in plants. As such, studying proteasome homeostasis is crucial to understand its participation in different cellular conditions. However, the involvement of the proteasome in many cellular processes and its interplay with other degradation pathways hamper the interpretation of experiments based on a single approach. Thus, it is crucial to formulate a framework to investigate proteasome dynamics in different model organisms including plants. Here, we describe a pipeline to monitor proteasome homeostasis using four different methods including (i) luminescent-based proteasome activity measurement, (ii) immunoblot analysis of ubiquitinated proteins, (iii) evaluation of proteasome subunit protein levels, and (iv) monitoring of the proteasome stress regulon on mRNA levels using quantitative real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction).

Proteasome Dysfunction Leads to Suppression of the Hypoxic Response Pathway in Arabidopsis

Proteasome is a large proteolytic complex that consists of a 20S core particle (20SP) and 19S regulatory particle (19SP) in eukaryotes. The proteasome degrades most cellular proteins, thereby controlling many key processes, including gene expression and protein quality control. Proteasome dysfunction in plants leads to abnormal development and reduced adaptability to environmental stresses. Previous studies have shown that proteasome dysfunction upregulates the gene expression of proteasome subunits, which is known as the proteasome bounce-back response. However, the proteasome bounce-back response cannot explain the damaging effect of proteasome dysfunction on plant growth and stress adaptation. To address this question, we focused on downregulated genes caused by proteasome dysfunction. We first confirmed that the 20SP subunit PBE is an essential proteasome subunit in Arabidopsis and that PBE1 mutation impaired the function of the proteasome. Transcriptome analyses showed that hypoxia-responsive genes were greatly enriched in the downregulated genes in pbe1 mutants. Furthermore, we found that the pbe1 mutant is hypersensitive to waterlogging stress, a typical hypoxic condition, and hypoxia-related developments are impaired in the pbe1 mutant. Meanwhile, the 19SP subunit rpn1a mutant seedlings are also hypersensitive to waterlogging stress. In summary, our results suggested that proteasome dysfunction downregulated the hypoxia-responsive pathway and impaired plant growth and adaptability to hypoxia stress.

Multi-omic analysis shows REVEILLE clock genes are involved in carbohydrate metabolism and proteasome function

Plants are able to sense changes in their light environments, such as the onset of day and night, as well as anticipate these changes in order to adapt and survive. Central to this ability is the plant circadian clock, a molecular circuit that precisely orchestrates plant cell processes over the course of a day. REVEILLE (RVE) proteins are recently discovered members of the plant circadian circuitry that activate the evening complex and PSEUDO-RESPONSE REGULATOR genes to maintain regular circadian oscillation. The RVE8 protein and its two homologs, RVE 4 and 6 in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), have been shown to limit the length of the circadian period, with rve 4 6 8 triple-knockout plants possessing an elongated period along with increased leaf surface area, biomass, cell size, and delayed flowering relative to wild-type Col-0 plants. Here, using a multi-omics approach consisting of phenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics we draw new connections between RVE8-like proteins and a number of core plant cell processes. In particular, we reveal that loss of RVE8-like proteins results in altered carbohydrate, organic acid, and lipid metabolism, including a starch excess phenotype at dawn. We further demonstrate that rve 4 6 8 plants have lower levels of 20S proteasome subunits and possess significantly reduced proteasome activity, potentially explaining the increase in cell-size observed in RVE8-like mutants. Overall, this robust, multi-omic dataset provides substantial insight into the far-reaching impact RVE8-like proteins have on the diel plant cell environment.

Ubiquitin ligases at the nexus of plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses

Plants must cope with an ever-changing environment, including concurrent biotic and abiotic stresses. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is intricately involved in regulating signaling events that facilitate cellular changes required to mitigate the detrimental effects of environmental stress. A key component of the UPS are ubiquitin ligases (or E3s) that catalyze the attachment of ubiquitin molecules to select substrate proteins, which are then recognized by the 26S proteasome for degradation. With the identification of substrate proteins, a growing number of E3s are shown to differentially regulate responses to abiotic as well as bioitic stresses. The review discusses select E3s to illustrate the role of ubiquitin ligases as negative and/or positive regulators of responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses.

OsHYPK-mediated protein N-terminal acetylation coordinates plant development and abiotic stress responses in rice

N-terminal acetylation is one of the most common protein modifications in eukaryotes, and approximately 40% of human and plant proteomes are acetylated by ribosome-associated N-terminal acetyltransferase A (NatA) in a co-translational manner. However, the in vivo regulatory mechanism of NatA and the global impact of NatA-mediated N-terminal acetylation on protein fate remain unclear. Here, we identify Huntingtin Yeast partner K (HYPK), an evolutionarily conserved chaperone-like protein, as a positive regulator of NatA activity in rice. We found that loss of OsHYPK function leads to developmental defects in rice plant architecture but increased resistance to abiotic stresses, attributable to perturbation of the N-terminal acetylome and accelerated global protein turnover. Furthermore, we demonstrated that OsHYPK is also a substrate of NatA and that N-terminal acetylation of OsHYPK promotes its own degradation, probably through the Ac/N-degron pathway, which could be induced by abiotic stresses. Taken together, our findings suggest that the OsHYPK-NatA complex plays a critical role in coordinating plant development and stress responses by dynamically regulating NatA-mediated N-terminal acetylation and global protein turnover, which are essential for maintaining adaptive phenotypic plasticity in rice.

Oxidative and salt stresses alter the 26S proteasome holoenzyme and associated protein profiles in Arabidopsis thaliana

BACKGROUND

The 26S proteasome, canonically composed of multi-subunit 19S regulatory (RP) and 20S core (CP) particles, is crucial for cellular proteostasis. Proteasomes are re-modeled, activated, or re-localized and this regulation is critical for plants in response to environmental stresses. The proteasome holoenzyme assembly and dissociation are therefore highly dynamic in vivo. However, the stoichiometric changes of the plant proteasomes and how proteasome associated chaperones vary under common abiotic stresses have not been systematically studied.

RESULTS

Here, we studied the impact of abiotic stresses on proteasome structure, activity, and interacting partners in Arabidopsis thaliana. We analyzed available RNA expression data and observed that expressions of proteasome coding genes varied substantially under stresses; however, the protein levels of a few key subunits did not change significantly within 24 h. Instead, a switch in the predominant proteasome complex, from 26S to 20S, occurs under oxidative or salt stress. Oxidative stress also reduced the cellular ATP content and the association of HSP70-family proteins to the 20S proteasome, but enhanced the activity of cellular free form CP. Salt stress, on the other hand, did not affect cellular ATP level, but caused subtle changes in proteasome subunit composition and impacted bindings of assembly chaperones. Analyses of an array of T-DNA insertional mutant lines highlighted important roles for several putative assembly chaperones in seedling establishment and stress sensitivity. We also observed that knockout of PBAC1, one of the α-ring assembly chaperones, resulted in reduced germination and tearing of the seed coat following sterilization.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of proteasome regulation during oxidative stress, involving dynamic regulation of the holoenzyme formation and associated regulatory proteins, and we also identified a novel role of the PBAC1 proteasome assembly chaperone in seed coat development.

SIMP1 modulates salt tolerance by elevating ERAD efficiency through UMP1A-mediated proteasome maturation in plants

Salt stress significantly induces accumulation of misfolded or unfolded proteins in plants. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated protein degradation (ERAD) and other degradative machineries function in the degradation of these abnormal proteins, leading to enhanced salt tolerance in plants. Here we characterise that a novel receptor-like kinase, Salt-Induced Malectin-like domain-containing Protein1 (SIMP1), elevates ERAD efficiency during salt stress through UMP1A, a putative proteasome maturation factor in Arabidopsis. SIMP1 loss-of-function caused a salt-hypersensitive phenotype. SIMP1 interacts and phosphorylates UMP1A, and the protein stability of UMP1A is positively regulated by SIMP1. SIMP1 modulates the 26S proteasome maturation possibly through enhancing the recruitment of specific β subunits of the core catalytic particle to UMP1A. Functionally, the SIMP1-UMP1A module plays a positive role in ERAD efficiency in Arabidopsis. The degradation of misfolded/unfolded proteins was impaired in both simp1 and ump1a mutants during salt stress. Consistently, both simp1 and ump1a plants exhibited reduced ER stress tolerance. Phenotypic analysis revealed that SIMP1 regulates salt tolerance through UMP1A at least in part. Taken together, our work demonstrated that SIMP1 modulates plant salt tolerance by promoting proteasome maturation via UMP1A, therefore mitigating ER stress through enhanced ERAD efficiency under saline conditions.

Siberian Wildrye (Elymus sibiricus L.) Abscisic Acid-Insensitive 5 Gene Is Involved in Abscisic Acid-Dependent Salt Response

Siberian wildrye (Elymus sibiricus L.) is a salt-tolerant, high-quality forage grass that plays an important role in forage production and ecological restoration. Abscisic acid (ABA)-insensitive 5 (ABI5) is essential for the normal functioning of the ABA signal pathway. However, the role of ABI5 from Siberian wildrye under salt stress remains unclear. Here, we evaluated the role of Elymus sibiricus L. abscisic acid-insensitive 5 (EsABI5) in the ABA-dependent regulation of the response of Siberian wildrye to salt stress. The open reading frame length of EsABI5 isolated from Siberian wildrye was 1170 bp, and it encoded a 389 amino acid protein, which was localized to the nucleus, with obvious coiled coil areas. EsABI5 had high homology, with ABI5 proteins from Hordeum vulgare, Triticum monococcum, Triticum aestivum, and Aegilops tauschii. The conserved domains of EsABI5 belonged to the basic leucine zipper domain superfamily. EsABI5 had 10 functional interaction proteins with credibility greater than 0.7. EsABI5 expression was upregulated in roots and leaves under NaCl stress and was upregulated in leaves and downregulated in roots under ABA treatment. Notably, tobacco plants overexpressing the EsABI5 were more sensitive to salt stress, as confirmed by the determining of related physiological indicators. EsABI5 expression affected the ABA and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Therefore, EsABI5 is involved in antisalt responses in these pathways and plays a negative regulatory role during salt stress.

In vitro Reconstitution Assays of Arabidopsis 20S Proteasome

The majority of cellular proteins are degraded by the 26S proteasome in eukaryotes. However, intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), which contain large portions of unstructured regions and are inherently unstable, are degraded via the ubiquitin-independent 20S proteasome. Emerging evidence indicates that plant IDP homeostasis may also be controlled by the 20S proteasome. Relatively little is known about the specific functions of the 20S proteasome and the regulatory mechanisms of IDP degradation in plants compared to other species because there is a lack of systematic protocols for in vitro assembly of this complex to perform in vitro degradation assays. Here, we present a detailed protocol of in vitro reconstitution assay of the 20S proteasome in Arabidopsis by modifying previously reported methods. The main strategy to obtain the 20S core proteasome here is to strip away the 19S regulatory subunits from the 26S proteasome. The protocol has two major parts: 1) Affinity purification of 20S proteasomes from stable transgenic lines expressing epitope-tagged PAG1, an essential component of the 20S proteasome (Procedures A-D) and 2) an in vitro 20S proteasome degradation assay (Procedure E). We anticipate that these protocols will provide simple and effective approaches to study in vitro degradation by the 20S proteasome and advance the study of protein metabolism in plants.

Chromatin remodeling factors regulate environmental stress responses in plants

Environmental stress from climate change and agricultural activity threatens global plant biodiversity as well as crop yield and quality. As sessile organisms, plants must maintain the integrity of their genomes and adjust gene expression to adapt to various environmental changes. In eukaryotes, nucleosomes are the basic unit of chromatin around which genomic DNA is packaged by condensation. To enable dynamic access to packaged DNA, eukaryotes have evolved Snf2 (sucrose nonfermenting 2) family proteins as chromatin remodeling factors (CHRs) that modulate the position of nucleosomes on chromatin. During plant stress responses, CHRs are recruited to specific genomic loci, where they regulate the distribution or composition of nucleosomes, which in turn alters the accessibility of these loci to general transcription or DNA damage repair machinery. Moreover, CHRs interplay with other epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and deposition of histone variants. CHRs are also involved in RNA processing at the post-transcriptional level. In this review, we discuss major advances in our understanding of the mechanisms by which CHRs function during plants' response to environmental stress.

RING finger protein RGLG1 and RGLG2 negatively modulate MAPKKK18 mediated drought stress tolerance in Arabidopsis

Mitogen activated protein kinase kinase kinase 18 (MAPKKK18) mediated signaling cascade plays important roles in Arabidopsis drought stress tolerance. However, the post-translational modulation patterns of MAPKKK18 are not characterized. In this study, we found that the protein level of MAPKKK18 was tightly controlled by the 26S proteasome. Ubiquitin ligases RGLG1 and RGLG2 ubiquitinated MAPKKK18 at lysine residue K32 and K154, and promoted its degradation. Deletion of RGLG1 and RGLG2 stabilized MAPKKK18 and further enhanced the drought stress tolerance of MAPKKK18-overexpression plants. Our data demonstrate that RGLG1 and RGLG2 negatively regulate MAPKKK18-mediated drought stress tolerance in Arabidopsis.

Protein Quality Control in Plant Organelles: Current Progress and Future Perspectives

The endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, and mitochondria are major plant organelles for protein synthesis, photosynthesis, metabolism, and energy production. Protein homeostasis in these organelles, maintained by a balance between protein synthesis and degradation, is essential for cell functions during plant growth, development, and stress resistance. Nucleus-encoded chloroplast- and mitochondrion-targeted proteins and ER-resident proteins are imported from the cytosol and undergo modification and maturation within their respective organelles. Protein folding is an error-prone process that is influenced by both developmental signals and environmental cues; a number of mechanisms have evolved to ensure efficient import and proper folding and maturation of proteins in plant organelles. Misfolded or damaged proteins with nonnative conformations are subject to degradation via complementary or competing pathways: intraorganelle proteases, the organelle-associated ubiquitin-proteasome system, and the selective autophagy of partial or entire organelles. When proteins in nonnative conformations accumulate, the organelle-specific unfolded protein response operates to restore protein homeostasis by reducing protein folding demand, increasing protein folding capacity, and enhancing components involved in proteasome-associated protein degradation and autophagy. This review summarizes recent progress on the understanding of protein quality control in the ER, chloroplasts, and mitochondria in plants, with a focus on common mechanisms shared by these organelles during protein homeostasis.

An evolutionarily distinct chaperone promotes 20S proteasome α-ring assembly in plants

The core protease (CP) subcomplex of the 26S proteasome houses the proteolytic active sites and assumes a barrel shape comprised of four co-axially stacked heptameric rings formed by structurally related α- and β-subunits. CP biogenesis typically begins with the assembly of the α-ring, which then provides a template for β-subunit integration. In eukaryotes, α-ring assembly is partially mediated by two hetero-dimeric chaperones, termed Pba1-Pba2 (Add66) and Pba3-Pba4 (also known as Irc25-Poc4) in yeast. Pba1-Pba2 initially promotes orderly recruitment of the α-subunits through interactions between their C-terminal HbYX or HbF motifs and pockets at the α5-α6 and α6-α7 interfaces. Here, we identified PBAC5 as a fifth α-ring assembly chaperone in Arabidopsis that directly binds the Pba1 homolog PBAC1 to form a trimeric PBAC5-PBAC1-PBAC2 complex. PBAC5 harbors a HbYX motif that docks with a pocket between the α4 and α5 subunits during α-ring construction. Arabidopsis lacking PBAC5, PBAC1 and/or PBAC2 are hypersensitive to proteotoxic, salt and osmotic stresses, and display proteasome assembly defects. Remarkably, whereas PBAC5 is evolutionarily conserved among plants, sequence relatives are also dispersed within other kingdoms, including a scattered array of fungal, metazoan and oomycete species.

Degradation of SERRATE via ubiquitin-independent 20S proteasome to survey RNA metabolism

SERRATE (SE) is a key factor in RNA metabolism. Here, we report that SE binds 20S core proteasome α subunit G1 (PAG1) among other components and is accumulated in their mutants. Purified PAG1-containing 20S proteasome degrades recombinant SE via an ATP- and ubiquitin-independent manner in vitro. Nevertheless, PAG1 is a positive regulator for SE in vivo, as pag1 shows comparable molecular and/or developmental defects relative to se. Furthermore, SE is poorly assembled into macromolecular complexes, exemplified by the microprocessor in pag1 compared with Col-0. SE overexpression triggered the destruction of both transgenic and endogenous protein, leading to similar phenotypes of se and SE overexpression lines. We therefore propose that PAG1 degrades the intrinsically disordered portion of SE to secure the functionality of folded SE that is assembled and protected in macromolecular complexes. This study provides insight into how the 20S proteasome regulates RNA metabolism through controlling its key factor in eukaryotes.

Proteasome Inhibition in Brassica napus Roots Increases Amino Acid Synthesis to Offset Reduced Proteolysis

Cellular homeostasis is maintained by the proteasomal degradation of regulatory and misfolded proteins, which sustains the amino acid pool. Although proteasomes alleviate stress by removing damaged proteins, mounting evidence indicates that severe stress caused by salt, metal(oids), and some pathogens can impair the proteasome. However, the consequences of proteasome inhibition in plants are not well understood and even less is known about how its malfunctioning alters metabolic activities. Lethality causes by proteasome inhibition in non-photosynthetic organisms stem from amino acid depletion, and we hypothesized that plants respond to proteasome inhibition by increasing amino acid biosynthesis. To address these questions, the short-term effects of proteasome inhibition were monitored for 3, 8 and 48 h in the roots of Brassica napus treated with the proteasome inhibitor MG132. Proteasome inhibition did not affect the pool of free amino acids after 48 h, which was attributed to elevated de novo amino acid synthesis; these observations coincided with increased levels of sulfite reductase and nitrate reductase activities at earlier time points. However, elevated amino acid synthesis failed to fully restore protein synthesis. In addition, transcriptome analysis points to perturbed abscisic acid signaling and decreased sugar metabolism after 8 h of proteasome inhibition. Proteasome inhibition increased the levels of alternative oxidase but decreased aconitase activity, most sugars and tricarboxylic acid metabolites in root tissue after 48 h. These metabolic responses occurred before we observed an accumulation of reactive oxygen species. We discuss how the metabolic response to proteasome inhibition and abiotic stress partially overlap in plants.

Insights into endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation in plants

Secretory and transmembrane protein synthesis and initial modification are essential processes in protein maturation, and these processes are important for maintaining protein homeostasis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER homeostasis can be disrupted by the accumulation of misfolded proteins, resulting in ER stress, due to specific intra- or extracellular stresses. Processes including the unfolded protein response (UPR), ER-associated degradation (ERAD) and autophagy are thought to play important roles in restoring ER homeostasis. Here, we focus on summarizing and analysing recent advances in our understanding of the role of ERAD in plant physiological processes, especially in plant adaption to biotic and abiotic stresses, and also identify several issues that still need to be resolved in this field.

Landscape of ubiquitination events that occur in host skin in response to tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis) bitten

Ticks are major parasites of domestic livestock, wildlife, and humans. After a tick bite, diverse cutaneous manifestations initially occur in the bitten area in the host. In this study, a label-free proteomics approach was applied to identify the differentially ubiquitinated proteins (DUPs) induced by tick-bitten in the skin. In total, 113 proteins were ubiquitinated in rabbit skin during tick bitten period, among which the ubiquitination levels of 43 proteins were altered. These DUPs in skin subjected to tick-bitten were enriched in metabolic processes, immune processes, and protein degradation processes. Bioinformatic analysis suggested that tick bitten may regulate the glycolysis pathway in host skin via differential ubiquitination of GAPDH, HK1 and TPI1, while regulate the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the MHC-I and MHC-II antigen-presenting pathways, and the HIF-1 signaling pathway via differential ubiquitination of MEK1, PSMC3, PSMA6, MHC-II and PSMD1. Moreover, PSMC3, PSMA6, PSMD1 and MEK1 were demonstrated as novel targets of ubiquitination. This study provides the first overview of ubiquitination in host skin affected by tick bitten and broadens our knowledge of the molecular mechanism involved in tick bitten.

Proteomic analysis of affinity-purified 26S proteasomes identifies a suite of assembly chaperones in Arabidopsis

The 26S proteasome is an essential protease that selectively eliminates dysfunctional and short-lived regulatory proteins in eukaryotes. To define the composition of this proteolytic machine in plants, we tagged either the core protease (CP) or the regulatory particle (RP) sub-complexes in Arabidopsis to enable rapid affinity purification followed by mass spectrometric analysis. Studies on proteasomes enriched from whole seedlings, with or without ATP needed to maintain the holo-proteasome complex, identified all known proteasome subunits but failed to detect isoform preferences, suggesting that Arabidopsis does not construct distinct proteasome sub-types. We also detected a suite of proteasome-interacting proteins, including likely orthologs of the yeast and mammalian chaperones Pba1, Pba2, Pba3, and Pba4 that assist in CP assembly; Ump1 that helps connect CP half-barrels; Nas2, Nas6, and Hsm3 that assist in RP assembly; and Ecm29 that promotes CP-RP association. Proteasomes from seedlings exposed to the proteasome inhibitor MG132 accumulated assembly intermediates, reflecting partially built proteasome sub-complexes associated with assembly chaperones, and the CP capped with the PA200/Blm10 regulator. Genetic analyses of Arabidopsis UMP1 revealed that, unlike in yeast, this chaperone is essential, with mutants lacking the major UMP1a and UMP1b isoforms displaying a strong gametophytic defect. Single ump1 mutants were hypersensitive to conditions that induce proteotoxic, salt and osmotic stress, and also accumulated several proteasome assembly intermediates, consistent with its importance for CP construction. Insights into the chaperones reported here should enable study of the assembly events that generate the 26S holo-proteasome in Arabidopsis from the collection of 64 or more subunits.

The ubiquitin-proteasome system in plant responses to environments

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is a rapid regulatory mechanism for selective protein degradation in plants and plays crucial roles in growth and development. There is increasing evidence that the UPS is also an integral part of plant adaptation to environmental stress, such as drought, salinity, cold, nutrient deprivation and pathogens. This review focuses on recent studies illustrating the important functions of the UPS components E2s, E3s and subunits of the proteasome and describes the regulation of proteasome activity during plant responses to environment stimuli. The future research hotspots and the potential for utilization of the UPS to improve plant tolerance to stress are discussed.