1
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Thieltges DW, Johnson PTJ, van Leeuwen A, Koprivnikar J. Effects of predation risk on parasite-host interactions and wildlife diseases. Ecology 2024; 105:e4315. [PMID: 38679953 PMCID: PMC11147705 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.4315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Landscapes of fear can determine the dynamics of entire ecosystems. In response to perceived predation risk, prey can show physiological, behavioral, or morphological trait changes to avoid predation. This in turn can indirectly affect other species by modifying species interactions (e.g., altered feeding), with knock-on effects, such as trophic cascades, on the wider ecosystem. While such indirect effects stemming from the fear of predation have received extensive attention for herbivore-plant and predator-prey interactions, much less is known about how they alter parasite-host interactions and wildlife diseases. In this synthesis, we present a conceptual framework for how predation risk-as perceived by organisms that serve as hosts-can affect parasite-host interactions, with implications for infectious disease dynamics. By basing our approach on recent conceptual advances with respect to predation risk effects, we aim to expand this general framework to include parasite-host interactions and diseases. We further identify pathways through which parasite-host interactions can be affected, for example, through altered parasite avoidance behavior or tolerance of hosts to infections, and discuss the wider relevance of predation risk for parasite and host populations, including heuristic projections to population-level dynamics. Finally, we highlight the current unknowns, specifically the quantitative links from individual-level processes to population dynamics and community structure, and emphasize approaches to address these knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Thieltges
- Department of Coastal Systems, NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Den Burg, The Netherlands
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life-Sciences, GELIFES, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter T J Johnson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Anieke van Leeuwen
- Department of Coastal Systems, NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Den Burg, The Netherlands
| | - Janet Koprivnikar
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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2
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Richards RL, Elderd BD, Duffy MA. Unhealthy herds and the predator–spreader: Understanding when predation increases disease incidence and prevalence. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9918. [PMID: 36969934 PMCID: PMC10037436 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Disease ecologists now recognize the limitation behind examining host–parasite interactions in isolation: community members—especially predators—dramatically affect host–parasite dynamics. Although the initial paradigm was that predation should reduce disease in prey populations (“healthy herds hypothesis”), researchers have realized that predators sometimes increase disease in their prey. These “predator–spreaders” are now recognized as critical to disease dynamics, but empirical research on the topic remains fragmented. In a narrow sense, a “predator–spreader” would be defined as a predator that mechanically spreads parasites via feeding. However, predators affect their prey and, subsequently, disease transmission in many other ways such as altering prey population structure, behavior, and physiology. We review the existing evidence for these mechanisms and provide heuristics that incorporate features of the host, predator, parasite, and environment to understand whether or not a predator is likely to be a predator–spreader. We also provide guidance for targeted study of each mechanism and quantifying the effects of predators on parasitism in a way that yields more general insights into the factors that promote predator spreading. We aim to offer a better understanding of this important and underappreciated interaction and a path toward being able to predict how changes in predation will influence parasite dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L. Richards
- Department of Biological SciencesLouisiana State UniversityBaton RougeLouisianaUSA
| | - Bret D. Elderd
- Department of Biological SciencesLouisiana State UniversityBaton RougeLouisianaUSA
| | - Meghan A. Duffy
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMichiganUSA
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3
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Richards RL, Drake JM, Ezenwa VO. Do predators keep prey healthy or make them sicker? A meta-analysis. Ecol Lett 2021; 25:278-294. [PMID: 34738700 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Ecological theory suggests that predators can either keep prey populations healthy by reducing parasite burdens or alternatively, increase parasitism in prey. To quantify the overall magnitude and direction of the effect of predation on parasitism in prey observed in practice, we conducted a meta-analysis of 47 empirical studies. We also examined how study attributes, including parasite type and life cycle, habitat type, study design, and whether predators were able to directly consume prey contributed to variation in the predator-prey-parasite interaction. We found that the overall effect of predation on parasitism differed between parasites and parasitoids and that whether consumptive effects were present, and whether a predator was a non-host spreader of parasites, were the most important traits predicting the parasite response. Our results suggest that the mechanistic basis of predator-prey interactions strongly influences the effects of predators on parasites and that these effects, although context dependent, are predictable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Richards
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - John M Drake
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Vanessa O Ezenwa
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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4
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Brian JI, Aldridge DC. Both presence-absence and abundance models provide important and different information about parasite infracommunities. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:3933-3937. [PMID: 34599361 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07327-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua I Brian
- Aquatic Ecology Group, The David Attenborough Building, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ, UK.
| | - David C Aldridge
- Aquatic Ecology Group, The David Attenborough Building, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ, UK
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5
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Gehman AM, Mahaffey M, Byers JE. Influences of land use and ecological variables on trematode prevalence and intensity at the salt marsh‐upland ecotone. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa‐Lois M. Gehman
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia 140 E. Green Street Athens Georgia 30602 USA
- Zoology University of British Columbia 2212 Main Mall Vancouver British Columbia V6T 1Z4 Canada
- Hakai Institute End of Kwakshua Channel Calvert Island British Columbia Canada
| | - Morgan Mahaffey
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia 140 E. Green Street Athens Georgia 30602 USA
| | - James E. Byers
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia 140 E. Green Street Athens Georgia 30602 USA
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6
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Abstract
Climate change affects ecological processes and interactions, including parasitism. Because parasites are natural components of ecological systems, as well as agents of outbreak and disease-induced mortality, it is important to summarize current knowledge of the sensitivity of parasites to climate and identify how to better predict their responses to it. This need is particularly great in marine systems, where the responses of parasites to climate variables are less well studied than those in other biomes. As examples of climate's influence on parasitism increase, they enable generalizations of expected responses as well as insight into useful study approaches, such as thermal performance curves that compare the vital rates of hosts and parasites when exposed to several temperatures across a gradient. For parasites not killed by rising temperatures, some simple physiological rules, including the tendency of temperature to increase the metabolism of ectotherms and increase oxygen stress on hosts, suggest that parasites' intensity and pathologies might increase. In addition to temperature, climate-induced changes in dissolved oxygen, ocean acidity, salinity, and host and parasite distributions also affect parasitism and disease, but these factors are much less studied. Finally, because parasites are constituents of ecological communities, we must consider indirect and secondary effects stemming from climate-induced changes in host-parasite interactions, which may not be evident if these interactions are studied in isolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Byers
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA;
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7
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Abstract
Information on parasites and disease in marine ecosystems lags behind terrestrial systems, increasing the challenge of predicting responses of marine host–parasite systems to climate change. However, here I examine several generalizable aspects and research priorities. First, I advocate that quantification and comparison of host and parasite thermal performance curves is a smart approach to improve predictions of temperature effects on disease. Marine invertebrate species are ectothermic and should be highly conducive to this approach given their generally short generation times. Second, in marine systems, shallow subtidal and intertidal areas will experience the biggest temperature swings and thus likely see the most changes to host–parasite dynamics. Third, for some responses like parasite intensity, as long as the lethal limit of the parasite is not crossed, on average, there may be a biological basis to expect temperature-dependent intensification of impacts on hosts. Fourth, because secondary mortality effects and indirect effects of parasites can be very important, we need to study temperature effects on host–parasite dynamics in a community context to truly know their bottom line effects. This includes examining climate-influenced effects of parasites on ecosystem engineers given their pivotal role in communities. Finally, other global change factors, especially hypoxia, salinity, and ocean acidity, covary with temperature change and need to be considered and evaluated when possible for their contributing effects on host–parasite systems. Climate change–disease interactions in nearshore marine environments are complex; however, generalities are possible and continued research, especially in the areas outlined here, will improve our understanding. Information on parasites and disease in marine ecosystems lags behind terrestrial systems, increasing the challenge of predicting responses of marine host-parasite systems to climate change. This Essay highlights five general principles to guide the study of the response of marine host-parasite interactions to climate change, including the effects of temperature, oxygen, acidity, and salinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E. Byers
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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8
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Life-cycle mediated effects of urbanization on parasite communities in the estuarine fish, Fundulus heteroclitus. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225896. [PMID: 31790480 PMCID: PMC6886805 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between urbanization and parasite community structure in the estuarine fish, Fundulus heteroclitus. We measured landscape and physicochemical factors associated with urbanization at 6 sites from 4 collection periods. Concurrently, we quantified the metazoan parasite community in F. heteroclitus collected at those sites, with 105 fish studied per site during the 4 collection periods. Parasite community composition differed among sites. Host size was the most important variable for direct life-cycle parasite assemblages and indirect life-cycle parasites at the individual fish level, while landscape and physicochemical factors determined the structure of indirect life-cycle parasite assemblages at the population scale. Variation in the prevalence and intensity of infection of two indirect life-cycle parasites, Lasiocotus minutus and Glossocercus caribaensis, were the primary parasites that drove differences across sites. Variation in the presence/absence of these indirect life-cycle parasite species was associated with sediment Ni concentrations, patch density, and marsh size. Our data support the hypothesis that urbanization, acting at both landscape and physicochemical scales, can have a significant impact on parasite community structure. This, however, varied by parasite life history: there was little effect of urbanization on the prevalence and intensity of direct life-cycle parasites, but significant variation was detected for indirect life-cycle parasites. This study demonstrates how anthropogenically driven landscape change influences fine-scale population dynamics of parasites.
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9
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Flores K, López Z, Levicoy D, Muñoz-Ramírez CP, González-Wevar C, Oliva ME, Cárdenas L. Identification assisted by molecular markers of larval parasites in two limpet species (Patellogastropoda: Nacella) inhabiting Antarctic and Magellan coastal systems. Polar Biol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-019-02511-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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Grason EW, McDonald PS, Ruesink JL. Comparing residence time and natural enemies between low- and high- density invasions. Biol Invasions 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-018-1776-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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11
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Byers JE, Holmes ZC, Blakeslee AMH. Consistency of trematode infection prevalence in host populations across large spatial and temporal scales. Ecology 2018; 97:1643-1649. [PMID: 27859172 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.1440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Parasites can impart heavy fitness costs on their hosts. Thus, understanding the spatial and temporal consistency in parasite pressure can elucidate the likeliness of parasites' role as agents of directional selection, as well as revealing variable environmental factors associated with infection risk. We examined spatiotemporal variation in digenetic trematode infection in 18 populations of an intertidal host snail (Littorina littorea) over a 300 km range at an 11-yr interval, more than double the generation time of the snail. Despite a complete turnover in the snail host population, the average change in infection prevalence among populations was <1% over the 11-yr span, and all but three populations remained within 5 percentage points. This consistency of prevalence in each population over time suggests remarkable spatiotemporal constancy in parasite delivery vectors in this system, notably gulls that serve as definitive hosts for the parasites. Thus, despite gulls' high mobility, their habitat usage patterns are ostensibly relatively fixed in space. Importantly, this spatiotemporal consistency also implies that sites where parasites are recruitment limited remain so over time, and likewise, that parasite hotspots stay hot.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Byers
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA
| | - Zachary C Holmes
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA
| | - April M H Blakeslee
- Biology Department, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, 27858, USA
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12
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Krapivin VA, Bagrov SV, Varfolomeeva MA. Effect of tidal level on abundance of symbionts in the White Sea blue mussel. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2018; 130:131-144. [PMID: 30198488 DOI: 10.3354/dao03259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In the White Sea, the blue mussel Mytilus edulis occupies a wide range of biotopes and is associated with numerous symbiotic organisms. At some sites, mussel cover spreads continuously from the intertidal to the subtidal zone. We checked whether the patterns of infection by different associated organisms differed among the upper subtidal, zero-depth and lower intertidal zones at 3 sites in the Kandalaksha Gulf and the Onega Bay of the White Sea. Organisms belonging to 13 taxa were found in mantle cavities and tissues of blue mussels. Parasitic green algae, a sporocyst and metacercariae of 5 species of digenean trematodes occupied mussel tissues; commensal ciliates, rhabdocoelans and some free-living invertebrates were found in mantle cavities. Quantitative composition of symbiotic communities of mussels was not the same at different tidal levels: Urastoma cyprinae (commensal rhabdocoelans) were more abundant in the subtidal and zero-depth zones, while encysted metacercariae of Renicola roscovita and Himasthla sp. were more abundant at the zero-depth and intertidal zones. We suggested several hypotheses to explain this heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir A Krapivin
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, St. Petersburg State University, 13B Universitetskaya Emb. 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
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13
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Daversa DR, Fenton A, Dell AI, Garner TWJ, Manica A. Infections on the move: how transient phases of host movement influence disease spread. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.1807. [PMID: 29263283 PMCID: PMC5745403 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal movement impacts the spread of human and wildlife diseases, and there is significant interest in understanding the role of migrations, biological invasions and other wildlife movements in spatial infection dynamics. However, the influence of processes acting on infections during transient phases of host movement is poorly understood. We propose a conceptual framework that explicitly considers infection dynamics during transient phases of host movement to better predict infection spread through spatial host networks. Accounting for host transient movement captures key processes that occur while hosts move between locations, which together determine the rate at which hosts spread infections through networks. We review theoretical and empirical studies of host movement and infection spread, highlighting the multiple factors that impact the infection status of hosts. We then outline characteristics of hosts, parasites and the environment that influence these dynamics. Recent technological advances provide disease ecologists unprecedented ability to track the fine-scale movement of organisms. These, in conjunction with experimental testing of the factors driving infection dynamics during host movement, can inform models of infection spread based on constituent biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Daversa
- Institute of Integrative Biology, Biosciences Building, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK .,Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - A Fenton
- Institute of Integrative Biology, Biosciences Building, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - A I Dell
- National Great Rivers Research and Education Centre (NGRREC), East Alton, IL 62024, USA.,Department of Biology, Washington University in St Louis, 1 Brookings Dr, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - T W J Garner
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - A Manica
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
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14
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Daversa DR, Manica A, Bosch J, Jolles JW, Garner TWJ. Routine habitat switching alters the likelihood and persistence of infection with a pathogenic parasite. Funct Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David R. Daversa
- Institute of Integrative BiologyUniversity of Liverpool Liverpool UK
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Institute of ZoologyZoological Society of London London UK
| | - Andrea Manica
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Jaime Bosch
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias NaturalesCSIC Madrid Spain
- Centro de InvestigaciónSeguimiento y EvaluaciónParque Nacional de la Sierra de Guadarrama Rascafría Spain
| | - Jolle W. Jolles
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Department of Collective BehaviourMax Planck Institute for Ornithology Konstanz Germany
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15
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Ayala-Díaz M, Richardson JML, Anholt BR. Local site differences in survival and parasitism of periwinkles ( Littorina sitkana Philippi, 1846). Ecol Evol 2017; 7:1021-1029. [PMID: 28303174 PMCID: PMC5306019 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The periwinkle, Littorina sitkana, is found throughout the intertidal zone, often in isolated subpopulations. The majority of trematode parasites use snails as intermediate hosts, and decreased survivorship is often observed in snails infected with trematodes. Sampling L. sitkana from four sites in Barkley Sound, British Columbia, Canada, we test the effects of parasitic infection on snail survival using maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches using the software MARK and WinBUGS. We found that survival of periwinkles and trematode community composition differed among sites, but survival and trematode prevalence were uncorrelated. WinBUGS performed better than MARK in two ways: (1) by allowing the use of information on known mortality, thus preventing survival overestimation; and (2) by giving more stable estimates while testing the effect of body size on snail survival. Our results suggest that snail survival depends heavily on local environmental factors that may vary greatly within a small geographical region. These findings are important because the majority of experimental studies on survival are done on snails from a single location.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Ayala-Díaz
- Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre Bamfield BC Canada; Department of Biology University of Victoria Victoria BC Canada
| | | | - Bradley R Anholt
- Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre Bamfield BC Canada; Department of Biology University of Victoria Victoria BC Canada
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16
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Predation on transmission stages reduces parasitism: sea anemones consume transmission stages of a barnacle parasite. Parasitology 2017; 144:917-922. [PMID: 28270243 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182017000026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
While parasites serve as prey, it is unclear how the spatial distribution of parasite predators provides transmission control and influences patterns of parasitism. Because many of its organisms are sessile, the rocky intertidal zone is a valuable but little used system to understand spatial patterns of parasitism and elucidate the underlying mechanisms driving these patterns. Sea anemones and barnacles are important space competitors in the rocky intertidal zone along the Pacific coast of North America. Anemones are voracious, indiscriminate predators; thus, they may intercept infectious stages of parasites before they reach a host. We investigate whether a sea anemone protects an associated barnacle from parasitism by Hemioniscus balani, an isopod parasitic castrator. At Coal Oil Point, Santa Barbara, California USA, 29% of barnacles were within 1 cm from an anemone at the surveyed tidal height. Barnacles associated with anemones had reduced parasite prevalence and higher reproductive productivity than those remote from sea anemones. In the laboratory, anemones readily consumed the transmission stage of the parasite. Hence, anemone consumption of parasite transmission stages may provide a mechanism by which community context regulates parasite prevalence at a local scale. Our results suggest predation may be an important process providing parasite transmission control.
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17
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Keogh CL, Sanderson ME, Byers JE. Local adaptation to parasite selective pressure: comparing three congeneric co-occurring hosts. Oecologia 2015; 180:137-47. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3461-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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