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Gielen R, Põldmaa K, Tammaru T. In search of ecological determinants of fungal infections: A semi‐field experiment with folivorous moths. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8926. [PMID: 35646316 PMCID: PMC9130559 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural enemies shape the fate of species at both ecological and evolutionary time scales. While the effects of predators, parasitoids, and viruses on insects are well documented, much less is known about the ecological and evolutionary role of entomopathogenic fungi. In particular, it is unclear to which extent may the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of these pathogens create selective pressures on ecological traits of herbivorous insects. In the present study, we reared three lepidopteran species in semi‐natural conditions in a European hemiboreal forest habitat. We studied the probability of the insects to die from fungal infection as a function of insect species, food plant, study site, (manipulated) condition of the larvae, and the phenological phase. The prevalence of entomopathogenic fungi remained low to moderate with the value consistently below 10% across the subsets of the data while as many as 23 fungal species, primarily belonging to the families Cordycipitaceae, Aspergillaceae, and Nectriaceae, were recorded. There were no major differences among the insect species in prevalence of the infections or in the structure of associated fungal assemblages. The family Cordycipitaceae, comprising mainly obligatory entomopathogens, dominated among the pathogens of pupae but not among the pathogens of larvae. Overall, there was evidence for a relatively weak impact of the studied ecological factors on the probability to be infected by a fungal pathogen; there were no effects of food plant, study site, or phenology which would be consistent over the study species and developmental stages of the insects. Nevertheless, when the prevalence of particular fungal taxa was studied, Akanthomyces muscarius was found infecting insects fed with leaves of only one of the food plant, Betula spp. Feeding on a particular plant taxon can thus have specific fitness costs. This demonstrates that fungus‐mediated effects on insect life history traits are possible and deserve attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Gielen
- Entomology Unit Department of Zoology Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences Faculty of Science and Technology University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
| | - Kadri Põldmaa
- Mycology Unit Department of Botany Faculty of Science and Technology Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
- Natural History Museum and Botanical Garden University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
| | - Toomas Tammaru
- Entomology Unit Department of Zoology Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences Faculty of Science and Technology University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
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2
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Kemp DJ. Genotype-environment interaction reveals varied developmental responses to unpredictable host phenology in a tropical insect. Evolution 2021; 75:1537-1551. [PMID: 33749853 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the genetic architecture of life history plasticity may inform resilience under environmental change, but relatively little is known for the inhabitants of unpredictable wet-dry tropical environments. Here, I explore the quantitative genetics of juvenile growth and development relative to hostplant phenology in the butterfly Eurema hecabe. Wet season generations of this species breed explosively on leguminous annuals whereas dry season generations subsist at low density upon an alternative perennial host. The wet-to-dry season transition is temporally unpredictable and marked by widespread host defoliation, forcing a large cohort of stranded larvae to either pupate prematurely or prolong development in the hope of renewed foliage production. A split-brood experiment demonstrated greater performance on high quality annual as opposed to perennial host foliage and a marked decline under the stressed conditions faced by stranded wet season larvae. Genetic variances for rates of growth and development were equivalent among high quality treatments but strikingly elevated under resource stress, and the associated cross-environment genetic correlations were indistinguishable from zero. The results demonstrate genotype-environment interaction involving both rank order and variance scale, thereby revealing genetic variance for norms of reaction that may reflect variable risk aversion given an unpredictable tropical host phenology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darrell J Kemp
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
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3
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Esperk T, Tammaru T. Ontogenetic Basis of Among-Generation Differences in Size-Related Traits in a Polyphenic Butterfly. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.612330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Seasonal polyphenisms are cases in which individuals representing generations occurring in different times of the year systematically differ in their morphological, physiological, and/or behavioral traits. Such differences are often assumed to constitute adaptive responses to seasonally varying environments, but the evidence for this is still scarce. The adaptive character of the response would be corroborated by the pattern in which the decision about choosing a particular seasonal phenotype is made before the onset of respective environmental conditions (anticipatory plasticity). Alternatively, the between-generation differences can be caused by immediate effects of seasonally varying environments (responsive plasticity). Here we reared the larvae of the seasonally polymorphic map butterfly Araschnia levana under two different photoperiodic regimes, which provided different seasonal cues. These two treatments induced direct development and diapause pathways, respectively. Replicating the experiment at different temperatures and levels of host plant quality allowed us to evaluate both the anticipatory and the responsive components of the associated plastic changes in life-history traits. Larvae representing the direct development pathway invariably had higher growth rates and shorter development periods, although the difference between the developmental pathways was smaller at inferior host quality. Body size differences between the developmental pathways turned out to be less consistent, as the natural pattern of higher pupal mass of the directly developing individuals could only be reproduced at lower rearing temperature. Though being considerably modified by immediate environmental effects, the between-generation differences in size, growth rates, and larval are largely based on anticipatory plasticity (= responses to photoperiodic cues) and should be treated as seasonal adaptations in A. levana. In a more general context, we show how investigating the proximate basis of size differences can serve the purpose of identifying the limits of phenotypic plasticity in juvenile growth schedules.
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4
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Gielen R, Meister H, Tammaru T, Põldmaa K. Fungi Recorded on Folivorous Lepidoptera: High Diversity Despite Moderate Prevalence. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7010025. [PMID: 33466243 PMCID: PMC7824780 DOI: 10.3390/jof7010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The knowledge about the diversity and ecological role of entomopathogenic fungi is primarily based on agroecosystems whereas information derived from natural insect populations is much more limited. To contribute to filling this gap, we recorded the prevalence of fungal infections in laboratory rearing experiments with five species of Lepidoptera, and in a field rearing experiment including one of these moths. The diversity of detected fungi was found to be high; we isolated 25 species of fungi from insects that had died in the course of these experiments. Six species belonged to the family Cordycipitaceae known to include unambiguous insect pathogens. The trophic niche of the representatives of other taxa is less clear and requires further studies. Regarding the most abundant species, Cordyceps farinosa, in which this question could be addressed, there was no indication of specialization on particular insect hosts, whereas several of the less common species may have been recorded from lepidopteran hosts for the first time. Across the subsets of the data, the prevalence of fungal infections generally remained below 5%. Our results are thus consistent with the idea that entomopathogenic fungi are always present in insect populations but rarely reach epizootic levels. The detected species richness shows that much is to be gained from mapping the diversity of fungal species associated with folivorous insects in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Gielen
- Entomology Unit, Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu 51014, Estonia; (H.M.); (T.T.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Hendrik Meister
- Entomology Unit, Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu 51014, Estonia; (H.M.); (T.T.)
| | - Toomas Tammaru
- Entomology Unit, Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu 51014, Estonia; (H.M.); (T.T.)
| | - Kadri Põldmaa
- Mycology Unit, Department of Botany, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a, Tartu 50411, Estonia;
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5
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Tüzün N, De Block M, Stoks R. Live fast, die old: oxidative stress as a potential mediator of an unexpected life‐history evolution. OIKOS 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.07183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nedim Tüzün
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Univ. of Leuven Deberiotstraat 32 BE‐3000 Leuven Belgium
| | - Marjan De Block
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Univ. of Leuven Deberiotstraat 32 BE‐3000 Leuven Belgium
| | - Robby Stoks
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Univ. of Leuven Deberiotstraat 32 BE‐3000 Leuven Belgium
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6
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Kojima W, Nakakura T, Fukuda A, Lin C, Harada M, Hashimoto Y, Kawachi A, Suhama S, Yamamoto R. Latitudinal cline of larval growth rate and its proximate mechanisms in a rhinoceros beetle. Funct Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wataru Kojima
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Tatsunori Nakakura
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Ayumi Fukuda
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Chung‐Ping Lin
- Department of Life Science National Taiwan Normal University Taipei Taiwan
| | - Masahiro Harada
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Yuki Hashimoto
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Aika Kawachi
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Shiho Suhama
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
| | - Ryo Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation Yamaguchi University Yamaguchi Japan
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7
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Bachmann JC, Jansen van Rensburg A, Cortazar-Chinarro M, Laurila A, Van Buskirk J. Gene Flow Limits Adaptation along Steep Environmental Gradients. Am Nat 2020; 195:E67-E86. [DOI: 10.1086/707209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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8
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Selection on growth rates via a trade-off between survival to sexual maturity and longevity in the swordtail fish Xiphophorus multilineatus. Evol Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-019-09989-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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9
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Sõber V, Sandre SL, Esperk T, Teder T, Tammaru T. Ontogeny of sexual size dimorphism revisited: Females grow for a longer time and also faster. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215317. [PMID: 31013286 PMCID: PMC6478289 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-specific mechanisms of the determination of insect body sizes are insufficiently understood. Here we use the common heath moth, Ematurga atomaria (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) to examine how larval growth trajectories differ between males and females. We monitored the development of 1379 larvae in controlled laboratory conditions. Sexually dimorphic development times during the first four instars were associated with sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in the beginning of the fifth (last) instar, when females were on average 15% heavier than males. Similarly, the duration of the last instar was about 13% longer in females. Further, we specifically focussed on the estimates of differential (instantaneous) growth rates of the larvae based on 24h mass increments of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th day in the beginning of the last instar. We calculated ‘allometric’ differential growth rates as the per-day increase in cube-root-transformed mass of the larvae. We found that allometric growth rates were slightly but significantly larger in females than in males. As this measure of growth rate (in contrast to the relative growth rate, based on the ratio of masses recorded at consecutive measurements) did not depend on body size, it allows an unambiguous separation of the effects of sex and size. We conclude that in accordance with an emerging general pattern, larger female body size in E. atomaria is achieved primarily by means of a longer growth period. Furthermore, our study shows that the differential growth rate can also be sexually dimorphic and contribute to SSD. This contribution, however, is lower than that of the development time by an order of magnitude. In addition to development periods and growth rates, other parameters of the non-linear growth curves of insect larvae also need to be considered in the context of SSD determination. In particular, weight loss prior to pupation was shown to be considerably larger in females than in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virve Sõber
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- * E-mail:
| | - Siiri-Lii Sandre
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Toomas Esperk
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tiit Teder
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Toomas Tammaru
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
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10
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Rohner PT, Roy J, Schäfer MA, Blanckenhorn WU, Berger D. Does thermal plasticity align with local adaptation? An interspecific comparison of wing morphology in sepsid flies. J Evol Biol 2019; 32:463-475. [PMID: 30776168 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Although genetic and plastic responses are sometimes considered as unrelated processes, their phenotypic effects may often align because genetic adaptation is expected to mirror phenotypic plasticity if adaptive, but run counter to it when maladaptive. Because the magnitude and direction of this alignment has further consequences for both the tempo and mode of adaptation, they are relevant for predicting an organisms' reaction to environmental change. To better understand the interplay between phenotypic plasticity and genetic change in mediating adaptive phenotypic variation to climate variability, we here quantified genetic latitudinal variation and thermal plasticity in wing loading and wing shape in two closely related and widespread sepsid flies. Common garden rearing of 16 geographical populations reared across multiple temperatures revealed that wing loading decreases with latitude in both species. This pattern could be driven by selection for increased dispersal capacity in the cold. However, although allometry, sexual dimorphism, thermal plasticity and latitudinal differentiation in wing shape all show similar patterns in the two species, the relationship between the plastic and genetic responses differed between them. Although latitudinal differentiation (south to north) mirrored thermal plasticity (hot to cold) in Sepsis punctum, there was no relationship in Sepsis fulgens. While this suggests that thermal plasticity may have helped to mediate local adaptation in S. punctum, it also demonstrates that genetic wing shape differentiation and its relation to thermal plasticity may be complex and idiosyncratic, even among ecologically similar and closely related species. Hence, genetic responses can, but do not necessarily, align with phenotypic plasticity induced by changing environmental selection pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick T Rohner
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jeannine Roy
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin A Schäfer
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wolf U Blanckenhorn
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - David Berger
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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11
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Sandre SL, Kaart T, Morehouse N, Tammaru T. Weak and inconsistent associations between melanic darkness and fitness-related traits in an insect. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1959-1968. [PMID: 30311708 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The idea that the fitness value of body coloration may be affected by biochemically mediated trade-offs has received much research attention. For example, melanization is believed to interact with other fitness-related traits via competition for substrates, costs associated with the synthesis of melanin or pleiotropic effects of the involved genes. However, genetic correlations between coloration and fitness-related traits remain poorly understood. Here, we present a quantitative-genetic study of a coloration trait correlated to melanin-based cuticular darkness ('darkness', hereafter) in a geometrid moth, Ematurga atomaria. This species has considerable variation in larval appearance. We focus on correlations between larval darkness and fitness-related growth performance traits. Both a half-sib analysis and an 'animal model' approach revealed moderately high heritabilities of larval darkness and indices of growth performance. Heritability estimates of darkness derived from the animal model were, however, considerably higher than those based on the half-sib model suggesting that the determination of coloration includes genetic interactions and epigenetic effects. Importantly, on the host plant with the largest sample size, we found no evidence for either genetic or environmental correlations between darkness and growth parameters. On an alternative host plant, there was some indication of positive genetic and negative environmental correlation between these traits. This shows that respective relationships are environment-specific. Nevertheless, the overall pattern of weak and inconsistent correlations between larval coloration and growth parameters does not support universal trade-offs between these traits and suggests that physiological costs of producing colour patterns do not necessarily interfere with adaptive evolution of coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siiri-Lii Sandre
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tanel Kaart
- Department of Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Nathan Morehouse
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Toomas Tammaru
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
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12
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Tammaru T, Johansson NR, Õunap E, Davis RB. Day-flying moths are smaller: evidence for ecological costs of being large. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1400-1404. [PMID: 29904956 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Research on evolutionary forces determining optimal body sizes has primarily relied on experimental evaluation of respective selective pressures. Accounting for among-species variation through application of phylogenetic comparative methods is a complementary although little used approach. It enables the direct association of body size values with particular environments. Using phylogenetically explicit comparative analyses, we show that small body size is associated with diurnal (rather than nocturnal) activity of adults among temperate species of the moth family Geometridae. The association of an exclusively adult trait with species-specific body size suggests that optimal body sizes are at least partly determined by the costs being a large adult, as opposed to the more frequently considered costs of attaining large size. It appears likely that size-selective predation by insectivorous birds is the primary factor responsible for selection against large body size in day-flying moths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toomas Tammaru
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Niko R Johansson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Erki Õunap
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Robert B Davis
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
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Meister H, Tammaru T, Sandre SL, Freitak D. Sources of variance in immunological traits: evidence of congruent latitudinal trends across species. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:2606-2615. [PMID: 28495866 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.154310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Among-population differences in immunological traits allow assessment of both evolutionary and plastic changes in organisms' resistance to pathogens. Such knowledge also provides information necessary to predict responses of such traits to environmental changes. Studies on latitudinal trends in insect immunity have so far yielded contradictory results, suggesting that multispecies approaches with highly standardised experimental conditions are needed. Here, we studied among-population differences of two parameters reflecting constitutive immunity-phenoloxidase (PO) and lytic activity, using common-garden design on three distantly related moth species represented by populations ranging from northern Finland to Georgia (Caucasus). The larvae were reared at different temperatures and on different host plants under a crossed factors experimental design. Haemolymph samples for measurement of immune status were taken from the larvae strictly synchronously. Clear among-population differences could be shown only for PO activity in one species (elevated activity in the northern populations). There was some indication that the cases of total absence of lytic activity were more common in southern populations. The effects of temperature, host and sex on the immunological traits studied remained highly species specific. Some evidence was found that lytic activity may be involved in mediating trade-offs between immunity and larval growth performance. In contrast, PO activity rarely covaried with fitness-related traits, and neither were the values of PO and lytic activity correlated with each other. The relatively inconsistent nature of the detected patterns suggests that studies on geographic differences in immunological traits should involve multiple species, and rely on several immunological indices if general trends are a point of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Meister
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Toomas Tammaru
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Siiri-Lii Sandre
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Dalial Freitak
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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