Transition to adult care for pediatric liver transplant recipients: the Western Australian experience

Social and Structural Drivers of Health and Transition to Adult Care

CONTEXT

Youth with chronic health conditions experience challenges during their transition to adult care. Those with marginalized identities likely experience further disparities in care as they navigate structural barriers throughout transition.

OBJECTIVES

This scoping review aims to identify the social and structural drivers of health (SSDOH) associated with outcomes for youth transitioning to adult care, particularly those who experience structural marginalization, including Black, Indigenous, and 2-spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, and others youth.

DATA SOURCES

Medline, Embase, CINAHL, and PsycINFO were searched from earliest available date to May 2022.

STUDY SELECTION

Two reviewers screened titles and abstracts, followed by full-text. Disagreements were resolved by a third reviewer. Primary research studying the association between SSDOH and transition outcomes were included.

DATA EXTRACTION

SSDOH were subcategorized as social drivers, structural drivers, and demographic characteristics. Transition outcomes were classified into themes. Associations between SSDOH and outcomes were assessed according to their statistical significance and were categorized into significant (P < .05), nonsignificant (P > .05), and unclear significance.

RESULTS

101 studies were included, identifying 12 social drivers (childhood environment, income, education, employment, health literacy, insurance, geographic location, language, immigration, food security, psychosocial stressors, and stigma) and 5 demographic characteristics (race and ethnicity, gender, illness type, illness severity, and comorbidity). No structural drivers were studied. Gender was significantly associated with communication, quality of life, transfer satisfaction, transfer completion, and transfer timing, and race and ethnicity with appointment keeping and transfer completion.

LIMITATIONS

Studies were heterogeneous and a meta-analysis was not possible.

CONCLUSIONS

Gender and race and ethnicity are associated with inequities in transition outcomes. Understanding these associations is crucial in informing transition interventions and mitigating health inequities.

The experiences of adolescent solid organ transplantation recipients, parents, and healthcare professionals in healthcare transition: A qualitative systematic review

PROBLEM

The transition from paediatric-centred to adult healthcare services in adolescent solid organ transplantation recipients is a period of increased risk and vulnerability, the issues related to healthcare transition have become key concerns to the healthcare community.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Qualitative studies of any design and qualitative components of mixed method studies that explored the experiences of healthcare transition among adolescent solid organ transplant recipients, parents, and healthcare professionals were included.

SAMPLE

Nine articles were finalised and included in the review.

METHODS

A systematic review of qualitative studies was conducted. Databases searched were Scopus, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Web of Science, PubMed, CINAHL and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Studies published between the inception of respective database and December 2022 inclusive were considered. A three-step inductive thematic synthesis method outlined by Thomas and Harden was used to form descriptive themes and the 10-item Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist was utilised to appraise the quality of included articles.

RESULTS

Two hundred and twenty studies were screened, and 9 studies published between 2013 and 2022 were included. Five analytical themes were generated: 'the struggle of being an adolescent with a transplant'; 'perceptions of transition'; 'the role of parents'; 'lack of transition readiness' and 'the need for better support'.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent solid organ transplant recipients, parents, and healthcare professionals faced multiple challenges in the healthcare transition.

IMPLICATIONS

Future interventions and health policies should provide targeted intervention strategies that address the barriers present in the healthcare transition to facilitate the optimization of the youth healthcare transition.

Quality of life and psychosocial outcomes of adults who were pediatric solid organ transplant recipients: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The number of pediatric SOT recipients surviving into adulthood is increasing. Thus, understanding their psychosocial and QoL outcomes is important. We conducted a systematic review to collate existing literature examining QoL outcomes (physical functioning, psychological functioning, social functioning), as well as risk and protective factors associated with QoL, among adults who underwent SOT during childhood.

METHODS

A systematic search of five databases, from inception to January 6, 2021, was conducted to identify articles that reported on QoL outcomes for adults (≥18-year of age) who received a SOT during childhood (<19-year of age).

RESULTS

Twenty-five articles met inclusion criteria. Studies examined QoL across a range of SOT populations (liver, kidney, heart). QoL and psychosocial outcomes were variable; however, the majority of studies indicated QoL in this population to be similar to the general population, or at least similar to other chronic illness groups, with the exception of physical and social functioning. Factors related to a more optimal medical course, younger age at transplant and follow-up, and positive psychosocial functioning, were found to be predictive of better QoL outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

While several studies indicated QoL to be similar to the general population, the literature is limited in both quantity and quality. No study employed prospective, longitudinal methodologies to systematically evaluate QoL over time and few studies utilized normative-based measures of QoL. Furthermore, several SOT groups were under-represented in the literature (e.g., lung, intestine, multi-visceral). Nonetheless, findings have implications for intervention and clinical decision-making.

Long-term outcomes in pediatric patients who underwent living donor liver transplantation for biliary atresia

BACKGROUND

There is no consensus about long-term outcomes in patients with biliary atresia. We retrospectively reviewed the long-term outcomes in pediatric patients who underwent living donor liver transplantation for biliary atresia.

METHODS

Between May 2001 and December 2020, 221 (73%) of 302 pediatric patients who underwent living donor liver transplantation had biliary atresia. The median age at living donor liver transplantation was 1.2 (range 0.2-16.5) years, and follow-up was 10.3 ± 5.5 years.

RESULTS

The 10-year graft survival rates in patients with and without biliary atresia were 94% and 89%, respectively (P = .019). The 10-year graft survival was significantly poorer in patients ≥12 years of age (84%) versus those <12 years of age at living donor liver transplantation (0-2 years: 95%; 2-12 years: 96%) (P = .016). The causes of graft failure in patients with biliary atresia included late-onset refractory rejection (n = 6), bowel perforation (n = 2), and acute encephalitis (n = 2), as well as cerebral hemorrhage, hepatic vein thrombosis, and sepsis (n = 1 for all). All 7 patients with graft failure due to refractory rejection and hepatic vein thrombosis underwent repeated liver transplantation and are alive in 2021. The rates of post-transplant portal vein complications and early-onset acute cellular rejection in patients with biliary atresia were higher than in those without biliary atresia (P = .042 and P = .022, respectively). In 2021, of 60 adolescents with biliary atresia, 14 (23%) reported medication nonadherence. The rate of liver dysfunction due to late-onset acute cellular rejection and graft failure due to late-onset refractory rejection in patients with nonadherence was higher than in patients with satisfactory adherence (P = .009).

CONCLUSION

The long-term prognosis after living donor liver transplantation in pediatric patients with biliary atresia is quite good. However, long-term support to enhance medication adherence is required in adolescents with biliary atresia.

African American Pediatric Liver Transplant Recipients Have an Increased Risk of Death After Transferring to Adult Healthcare

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the long-term outcomes in pediatric liver transplant recipients after they have transferred to an adult provider and assess for racial disparities in health outcomes.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a single-center, retrospective review of pediatric patients who underwent liver transplantation between July 1990 and August 2015 at a tertiary healthcare system with a large transplant center. Patient mortality and retransplantation were assessed after transfer to adult care.

RESULTS

There were 120 patients who were transferred, of whom 19 did not meet the inclusion criteria. Of the remaining 101 patients, 64 (63%) transferred care to a nearby affiliated tertiary adult facility, 29 (29%) were followed by other healthcare systems, and 8 (8%) were lost to follow-up. Of the patients followed at our affiliated adult center, 18 of the 64 (28%) died. Of those 18 deaths, 4 (22%) occurred within the first 2 years after transfer, and 10 (55%) within 5 years of transfer. Four patients were retransplanted by an adult provider, of whom 2 eventually received a third transplant. African Americans had higher rates of death after transfer than patients of other races (44% mortality vs 16%, representing 67% of all cases of death; P = .032), with nearly 50% mortality at 20 years from time of transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Death is common in pediatric liver transplant recipients after transfer to adult care, with African Americans having disproportionately higher mortality. This period of transition of care is a vulnerable time, and measures must be taken to ensure the safe transfer of young adults with chronic health care needs.

A multidisciplinary approach to improving transition readiness in pediatric liver transplant recipients

The Six Core Elements of Transition have been advocated to guide transition, but little is published about their use with liver transplant patients. We started a liver transplant transition program in August 2015 using quality improvement (QI) methods and by linking the Six Core Elements of Transition to process measures. Eligible patients completed baseline transition readiness assessments (Readiness for Transition Questionnaire, RTQ), interviews with a psychologist, received focused education, and completed follow-up RTQs before transfer to adult care. Our QI goal was to improve RTQ scores by 20% prior to transfer to adult care. We also assessed continuity of care, tacrolimus levels, rejection, and retransplantation as balancing measures. Of the 24 patients who completed the transition program and were transferred to adult care, RTQ scores were available for 11 patients. Overall RTQ scores improved from 23.7 to 30.5 (+28.7%, P = .009) prior to transfer. Nearly two-thirds (63%) of patients were seen by adult transplant hepatology within 6 months, and one patient was lost to follow-up after the first adult visit. Tacrolimus-level standard deviations were <2.0 in 45% of patients in pediatric care and 72% of patients in adult care. Three patients had undergone immunosuppression withdrawal in pediatric care, with one restarted on immunosuppression prior to transfer to adult care due to late acute rejection. The Six Core Elements of Transition can be translated into patient- and system-level transition milestones to serve as potential quality metrics in the implementation of transition programs.

TRANSITION of Pediatric Liver Transplant Patients to Adult Care: a Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Many pediatric liver transplant patients are surviving to adulthood, and providers have come to recognize the importance of effectively transitioning these patients to an adult hepatologist. The review aims to analyze the most recent literature regarding patient outcomes after transition, barriers to successful transition, recommendations from clinicians and medical societies regarding transition programs, and to provide personal insights from our experience in transitioning liver transplant recipients.

RECENT FINDINGS

While results were variable between studies, many recent reports show significant morbidity and mortality in patients following transition to adult care. Medical non-adherence is frequently seen in adolescents and young adults both prior to and after transition, and is consistently associated with higher rates of rejection, graft loss, and death. In general, transplant programs with a formal transition process had better patient outcomes though recent findings are mostly-single center and direct comparison between programs is difficult. Societal recommendations for how to create a transition program contain a number of common themes that we have categorized for easier understanding. Successful transition is vital to the continued health of pediatric liver transplant patients. While an effective transition program includes a number of key components, it should be individualized to best function within a given transplant center. Here, we have reviewed a number of recent single-center retrospective studies on transition, but multi-site retrospective or prospective data is lacking, and is a fertile area for future research.

Medication non-adherence among liver transplant recipients

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We provide an overview of the recent evidence on the prevalence, risk factors, and consequences of medication non-adherence (NA) in liver transplant (LT) recipients.

RECENT FINDINGS

NA in LT is associated with socio-demographic and medication-related factors, low social support, and poor health literacy. Patient-reported adherence is one of the most common methods to measure NA using validated assessments; immunosuppression (IS) drug levels and electronic monitoring may also be used. Simplification of IS regimens such as the conversion from twice daily to once daily has been shown to be safe, effective, and improves adherence. Relatively few studies have prospectively investigated NA predictors or interventions to reduce NA in LT.

SUMMARY

Medication non-adherence is a multi-faceted issue that is common among LT recipients and associated with adverse outcomes. NA in LT recipients warrants further study as only a few interventions have been published focused on reducing NA in LT.

Inpatient mortality in transition-aged youth with rheumatic disease: an analysis of the National Inpatient Sample

BACKGROUND

Transition from pediatric to adult care is a vulnerable time for youth with chronic diseases. In youth with rheumatic disease, studies show high rates of loss to follow up and increased disease activity. However, mortality data are lacking. In this study, we assessed whether transitional age is a risk factor for inpatient mortality.

METHODS

We analyzed the 2012-2014 National Inpatient Sample database, a representative sample of discharges in the United States. Individuals with rheumatic diseases were identified by International Statistical Classification of Disease - 9 (ICD-9) codes at time of discharge. Youth were categorized into three age groups: pre-transitional (11-17), transitional (18-24) and post transitional (25-31). We fitted univariable and multivariable logistic regression models to assess whether transitional age was a risk factor for inpatient mortality.

RESULTS

There were 30,269 hospital discharges which met our inclusion criteria of diagnosis and age. There were 195 inpatient deaths (0.7%). The most common causes of death were infection (39.5%), pulmonary disease (13.8%), and cardiac disease (11.2%). The Odds ratio for inpatient mortality of a transitional-aged individual was 1.18 compared to controls (p = 0.3). Black race (OR = 1.4), male sex (OR = 1.75), and a diagnosis of systemic sclerosis (OR = 4.81) or vasculitis (OR = 2.85) were the greatest risk factors of inpatient mortality.

CONCLUSION

Transitional age was not a risk factor for inpatient mortality in this study. We did identify other risk factors other than age. Further studies are required to assess if there is an increased risk of mortality in outpatients of the transitional age group.

Pediatric Heart Transplantation: Transitioning to Adult Care (TRANSIT): Feasibility of a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Young-adult heart transplant recipients transferring to adult care are at risk for poor health outcomes. We conducted a pilot randomized controlled trial to determine the feasibility of and to test a transition intervention for young adults who underwent heart transplantation as children and then transferred to adult care.

METHODS

Participants were randomized to the transition intervention (4 months long, focused on heart-transplant knowledge, self-care, self-advocacy, and social support) or usual care. Self-report questionnaires and medical records data were collected at baseline and 3 and 6 months after the initial adult clinic visit. Longitudinal analyses comparing outcomes over time were performed using generalized estimating equations and linear mixed models.

RESULTS

Transfer to adult care was successful and feasible (ie, excellent participation rates). The average patient standard deviation of mean tacrolimus levels was similar over time in both study arms and < 2.5, indicating adequate adherence. There were no between-group or within-group differences in percentage of tacrolimus bioassays within target range (> 50%). Average overall adherence to treatment was similarly good in both groups. Rates of appointment keeping through 6 months after transfer declined over time in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The feasibility of the study was demonstrated. Our transition intervention did not improve outcomes.

Psychosocial outcome and resilience after paediatric liver transplantation in young adults

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The long-term psychosocial outcome of young adults after paediatric liver transplantation (LT) was investigated with the focus on day-to-day living. We aimed to capture patients' subjective perceptions of well-being and autonomy based on key physical outcome parameters.

METHODS

All patients following paediatric LT at Hannover Medical School born before 2002 with a post-transplant follow-up of at least four years were included in this study. This retrospective observational study compared psychosocial parameters obtained from a self-designed 77-item questionnaire with standard clinical outcome variables.

RESULTS

Eighty-two patients (male: 57%) aged 13-41 years were included in the survey within a three-month period (response rate: 41%). With an adherence rate of 33%, all but two patients were immunosuppressed. In total, 53 patients had transitioned to adult care largely without problems. Eighty-three percent (n = 68) evaluated their current health status as "(very) good". Sixty-seven patients (82%) did not experience health-related anxiety in daily life.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate psychological stability and high self-esteem of young patients, as well as good integration into society and a high degree of normality during daily life after LT. Adherence rates are lower than anticipated and do not correlate with patients' understanding of their medical condition.

Pediatric Living-Donor Liver Transplant Recipients without Transition After Reaching Adulthood

Background

Transition to adult care can trigger certain problems for pediatric liver transplant recipients. At our institution, the same transplant team performs both adult and pediatric liver transplantation and post-transplant care; thus, pediatric liver transplant recipients do not have to be transferred. However, it is unclear whether this system affects the recipient’s outcome during the transition period. Therefore, we retrospectively assessed pediatric liver transplant recipients who reached adulthood at our institution.

Material/Methods

This was a single-center, retrospective study involving consecutive pediatric living-donor liver transplant recipients who reached the age of 18 by October 2017. A total of 36 recipients, 20 females and 16 males, were included in the study.

Results

The 5- and 10-year patient survival after reaching the age of 18 was 100% and 93%, respectively. All of the 3 patients who died had been suffering from secondary biliary cirrhosis due to biliary stricture. In 5 patients (13.9%), biliary stricture became symptomatic or recurred after reaching the age of 18 years. Late-onset acute rejection and chronic rejection developed in 2 (5.6%) and 4 patients (11.1%), respectively. Only 4 (11.1%) patients were obviously noncompliant. We found no significant association between compliance and rejection or survival. Among the patients who are 18 years old and older, 5 (13.9%) had a psychiatric diagnosis.

Conclusions

Pediatric liver transplant recipients who underwent transplant surgery and received post-transplant care at our institution have good long-term outcomes. This suggests that having the same team perform both adult and pediatric transplantation and post-transplant care is beneficial for young adult recipients.

The Transition of the Gastrointestinal Patient from Pediatric to Adult Care

Transition is the long process of developing independent self-management skills whereas transfer is the actual move from pediatric to adult-centered provider. Structured anticipated transition works best with timelines of tasks to master and discussion of the stylistic differences between pediatric and adult practices. Disease-specific issues need to be addressed, such as earlier timelines for diet-based therapies, parental support for critical illnesses, and differences in therapeutic strategies.