Antiphotoaging and Antimelanogenesis Properties of Ginsenoside C-Y, a Ginsenoside Rb2 Metabolite from American Ginseng PDD-ginsenoside

Production and pharmaceutical research of minor saponins in Panax notoginseng (Sanqi): Current status and future prospects

Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen is a traditional medicinal herb known as Sanqi or Tianqi in Asia and is commonly used worldwide. It is one of the main raw ingredients of Yunnan Baiyao, Fu fang dan shen di wan, and San qi shang yao pian. It is also a source of cardiotonic pill used to treat cardiovascular diseases in China, Korea, and Russia. Approximately 270 Panax notoginseng saponins have been isolated and identified as the major active components. Although the absorption and bioavailability of saponins are predominantly dependent on the gastrointestinal biotransformation capacity of an individual, minor saponins are better absorbed into the bloodstream and act as active substances than major saponins. Notably, minor saponins are absent or are present in minimal quantities under natural conditions. In this review, we focus on the strategies for the enrichment and production of minor saponins in P. notoginseng using physical, chemical, enzyme catalytic, and microbial methods. Moreover, pharmacological studies on minor saponins derived from P. notoginseng over the last decade are discussed. This review serves as a meaningful resource and guide, offering scholarly references for delving deeper into the exploration of the minor saponins in P. notoginseng.

Advancements in enzymatic biotransformation and bioactivities of rare ginsenosides: A review

Ginsenoside, the principal active constituent of ginseng, exhibits enhanced bioavailability and medicinal efficacy in rare ginsenosides compared to major ginsenosides. Current research is focused on efficiently and selectively removing sugar groups attached to the major ginsenoside sugar chains to convert them into rare ginsenosides that meet the demands of medical industry and functional foods. The methods for preparing rare ginsenosides encompass chemical, microbial, and enzymatic approaches. Among these, the enzyme conversion method is highly favored by researchers due to its exceptional specificity and robust efficiency. This review summarizes the biological activities of different rare ginsenosides, explores the various glycosidases used in the biotransformation of different major ginsenosides as substrates, and elucidates their respective corresponding biotransformation pathways. These findings will provide valuable references for the development, utilization, and industrial production of ginsenosides.

Effects of saponins Rb1 and Re in American ginseng combined intervention on immune system of aging model

Aging is a major risk factor for the development of many pathological processes, such as reduced immunity, cancer, cardiovascular diseases or neurodegenerative diseases, while age-related chronic diseases are the most common causes of death. This paper studies the effects of American ginseng saponin Rb1 and Re alone and combined intervention on the immune system of aging mouse models, by using 30 mg/kg Rb1, 15 mg/kg Re, and Rb1 + Re (30 mg/kg Rb1 and 15 mg/kg Re (co-intervention) was used to intervene in the aging model, and immune indicators such as thymus index, spleen index, interleukin and interferon were detected to evaluate the impact of Rb1 and Re on immune function. The results show that Rb1 and Re intervention alone can increase the spleen index by 7%-12% and the thymus index by 12%-19% in the aging model. After Rb1 or Re alone intervened, the apoptotic cells in the thymus were slightly reduced, and the proportion of apoptotic cells was reduced. The combination of Rb1 + Re can promote the thymus index and spleen index to increase by 23.40% and 25.5% respectively, which is more advantageous than Rb1 or Re alone. In addition, Rb1 and Re intervention can reduce the level of interferon INF to a level comparable to that of young mice. Rb1 + Re can not only reduce the INF content, but also reduce the TNF content. The above results show that American ginseng saponin Rb1 and Re can delay the decline of the immune system in the aging model, and the combined intervention of the two is significantly better than individual intervention in the recovery of the immune system. This paper can provide theoretical basis and data support for the development of American ginseng nutritional supplements and its application in aging groups products to improve immunity.

Ginsenoside Rf in wild ginseng adventitious roots extract inhibits melanogenesis via cAMP/PKA and NO/cGMP signalling pathways in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-stimulated B16F10 mouse melanoma cells and zebrafish

The scarcity of more effective wild ginseng has severely limited its use, culturing of adventitious roots from wild ginseng were its good substitute. In this study, we found ginsenoside Rf as the special component in adventitious roots extract significantly decreased melanin levels and tyrosinase activity in B16F10 cells and zebrafish, and suppressed the expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor and melanogenic enzymes in B16F10 cells. Notably, Rf treatment of B16F10 cells led to reduced cell levels of adenosine cyclic 3', 5'-monophosphate (cAMP), nitric oxide (NO), and guanoside cyclic 3', 5'-monophosphate (cGMP), and reduced activities of adenylate cyclase (AC), protein kinase A (PKA), guanylate cyclase (GC), and protein kinase G (PKG), which suggest Rf anti-melanogenic activity potentially involved inhibition of AC/cAMP/PKA and NO/GC/cGMP/PKG signalling pathway. This work provides experimental basis for skin-lightening effect of wild ginseng adventitious roots and their functional part.

In Vitro Cultivation and Ginsenosides Accumulation in Panax ginseng: A Review

The use of in vitro tissue culture for herbal medicines has been recognized as a valuable source of botanical secondary metabolites. The tissue culture of ginseng species is used in the production of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, polysaccharides, and especially ginsenosides, which are utilized in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. This review paper focuses on the in vitro culture of Panax ginseng and accumulation of ginsenosides. In vitro culture has been applied to study organogenesis and biomass culture, and is involved in direct organogenesis for rooting and shooting from explants and in indirect morphogenesis for somatic embryogenesis via the callus, which is a mass of disorganized cells. Biomass production was conducted with different types of tissue cultures, such as adventitious roots, cell suspension, and hairy roots, and subsequently on a large scale in a bioreactor. This review provides the cumulative knowledge of biotechnological methods to increase the ginsenoside resources of P. ginseng. In addition, ginsenosides are summarized at enhanced levels of activity and content with elicitor treatment, together with perspectives of new breeding tools which can be developed in P. ginseng in the future.

Transcriptomics and metabolomics reveal the changes induced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Panax quinquefolius L

BACKGROUND

Panax quinquefolius L. is one of the most important foods and herbs because of its high nutritional value and medicinal potential. In our previous study we found that the ginsenoside content in P. quinquefolius was improved by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs). However, little research has been conducted on the molecular mechanisms in P. quinquefolius roots induced by AMFs colonization. To identify the metabolomic and transcriptomic mechanisms of P. quinquefolius induced by AMFs, non-mycorrhized (control) and mycorrhized (AMF) P. quinquefolius were used as experimental materials for comparative analysis of the transcriptome and metabolome.

RESULTS

Compared with the control, 182 metabolites and 545 genes were significantly changed at the metabolic and transcriptional levels in AMFs treatment. The metabolic pattern of AMFs was changed, and the contents of ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg2), threonine, and glutaric acid were significantly increased. There were significant differences in the expression of genes involved in plant hormone signal transduction, glutathione metabolism, and the plant-pathogen interaction pathway. In addition, several transcription factors from the NAC, WRKY, and basic helix-loop-helix families were identified in AMFs versus the control. Furthermore, the combined analysis of 'transcriptomics-metabolomics' analysis showed that 'Plant hormone signal transduction', 'Amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism' and 'Glutathione metabolism' pathways were the important enriched pathways in response to AMFs colonization.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these results provide new insights into P. quinquefolius response to AMFs, which improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of P. quinquefolius induced by AMFs. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

American Ginseng for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent degenerative condition that is increasingly affecting populations globally. American ginseng (AG) has anti-AD bioactivity, and ginsenosides, as the main active components of AG, have shown strong anti-AD effects in both in vitro and in vivo studies. It has been reported that ginsenosides can inhibit amyloid β-protein (Aβ) production and deposition, tau phosphorylation, apoptosis and cytotoxicity, as well as possess anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, thus suppressing the progression of AD. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the pathogenesis of AD, the potential anti-AD effects of ginsenosides found in AG, and the underlying molecular mechanisms associated with these effects. Additionally, we will discuss the potential use of AG in the treatment of AD, and how ginsenosides in AG may exert more potent anti-AD effects in vivo may be a direction for further research.

Research Progress on the Anti-Aging Potential of the Active Components of Ginseng

Aging is a cellular state characterized by a permanent cessation of cell division and evasion of apoptosis. DNA damage, metabolic dysfunction, telomere damage, and mitochondrial dysfunction are the main factors associated with senescence. Aging increases β-galactosidase activity, enhances cell spreading, and induces Lamin B1 loss, which further accelerate the aging process. It is associated with a variety of diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's, type 2 diabetes, and chronic inflammation. Ginseng is a traditional Chinese medicine with anti-aging effects. The active components of ginseng, including saponins, polysaccharides, and active peptides, have antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, neuroprotective, and age-delaying effects. DNA damage is the main factor associated with aging, and the mechanism through which the active ingredients of ginseng reduce DNA damage and delay aging has not been comprehensively described. This review focuses on the anti-aging mechanisms of the active ingredients of ginseng. Furthermore, it broadens the scope of ideas for further research on natural products and aging.

Ketonization of Ginsenoside C-K by Novel Recombinant 3-β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases and Effect on Human Fibroblast Cells

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The ginsenoside compound K (C-K) (which is a de-glycosylated derivative of major ginsenosides) is effective in the treatment of cancer, diabetes, inflammation, allergy, angiogenesis, aging, and has neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective than other minor ginsenosides. Thus, a lot of studies have been focused on the conversion of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides using glycoside hydrolases but there is no study yet published for the bioconversion of minor ginsenosides into another high pharmacological active compound. Therefore, the objective of this study to identify a new gene (besides the glycoside hydrolases) for the conversion of minor ginsenosides C-K into another highly pharmacological active compound.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Lactobacillus brevis which was isolated from Kimchi has showed the ginsenoside C-K altering capabilities. From this strain, a novel potent decarboxylation gene, named HSDLb1, was isolated and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) using the pMAL-c5X vector system. Recombinant HSDLb1 was also characterized. The HSDLb1 consists of 774 bp (258 amino acids residues) with a predicted molecular mass of 28.64 kDa. The optimum enzyme activity was recorded at pH 6.0-8.0 and temperature 30 °C. Recombinant HSDLb1 effectively transformed the ginsenoside C-K to 12-β-hydroxydammar-3-one-20(S)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (3-oxo-C-K). The experimental data proved that recombinant HSDLb1 strongly ketonized the hydroxyl (-O-H) group at C-3 of C-K via the following pathway: C-K → 3-oxo-C-K. In vitro study, 3-oxo-C-K showed higher solubility than C-K, and no cytotoxicity to fibroblast cells. In addition, 3-oxo-C-K induced the inhibitory activity of ultraviolet A (UVA) against matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and promoted procollagen type I synthesis. Based on these expectations, we hypothesized that 3-oxo-C-K can be used in cosmetic products to block UV radiations and anti-ageing agent. Furthermore, we expect that 3-oxo-C-K will show higher efficacy than C-K for the treatment of cancer, ageing and other related diseases, for which more studies are needed.

Pharmacokinetic Comparison of Ginsenosides between Fermented and Non-Fermented Red Ginseng in Healthy Volunteers

Fermentation of red ginseng (RG) produces fermented red ginseng (FRG), thereby increasing the relative amount of downstream ginsenosides, including compound Y (CY), F2, Rh2, compound K (CK), compound O, protopanaxadiol (PPD), and protopanaxatriol (PPT). These downstream ginsenosides have beneficial pharmacological effects, and are easily absorbed by the human body. Based on these expectations, a randomized, single-dose, two-period, crossover clinical trial was planned to compare the pharmacokinetic characteristics of seven types (Rb1, CY, F2, CK, Rh2, PPD, and PPT) of ginsenoside components after FRG and RG administration. The safety and tolerability profiles were assessed in this clinical trial. Sixteen healthy Korean male subjects were administered 6 g of FRG or RG. All ginsenosides except Rb1 showed higher systemic exposure after FRG administration than after RG administration, based on comparisons of ginsenoside C_max and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) between FRG and RG. CK, the main ginsenoside component produced during the fermentation process, had 69.23/74.53-fold higher C_max/AUC_last after administration of FRG than RG, and Rh2 had 20.27/18.47-fold higher C_max/AUC_last after administration of FRG than RG. In addition, CY and F2 were detected in FRG; however, all plasma concentrations of CY and F2, except in one subject, were below the lower limit of quantification in RG. There were no clinically significant findings with respect to clinical laboratory tests, blood pressures, or adverse events. Therefore, regular administration of FRG may exert better pharmacological effects than RG.

Recent Advances in Herbal-Derived Products with Skin Anti-Aging Properties and Cosmetic Applications

Although aesthetic benefits are a desirable effect of the treatment of skin aging, it is also important in controlling several skin diseases, mainly in aged people. The development of new dermocosmetics has rapidly increased due to consumers' demand for non-invasive products with lower adverse effects than those currently available on the market. Natural compounds of plant origin and herbal-derived formulations have been popularized due to their various safe active products, which act through different mechanisms of action on several signaling pathways for skin aging. Based on this, the aim of the review was to identify the recent advances in herbal-derived product research, including herbal formulations and isolated compounds with skin anti-aging properties. The studies evaluated the biological effects of herbal-derived products in in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies, highlighting the effects that were reported in clinical trials with available pharmacodynamics data that support their protective effects to treat, prevent, or control human skin aging. Thus, it was possible to identify that gallic and ferulic acids and herbal formulations containing Thymus vulgaris, Panax ginseng, Triticum aestivum, or Andrographis paniculata are the most promising natural products for the development of new dermocosmetics with skin anti-aging properties.

A review for discovering bioactive minor saponins and biotransformative metabolites in Panax quinquefolius L

Panax quinquefolius L. has attracted extensive attention worldwide because of its prominent pharmacological properties on type 2 diabetes, cancers, central nervous system, and cardiovascular diseases. Ginsenosides are active phytochemicals of P. quinquefolius, which can be classified as propanaxdiol (PPD)-type, propanaxtriol (PPT)-type, oleanane-type, and ocotillol-type oligo-glycosides depending on the skeleton of aglycone. Recently, advanced analytical and isolated methods including ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem with mass detector, preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, and high speed counter-current chromatography have been used to isolate and identify minor components in P. quinquefolius, which accelerates the clarification of the material basis. However, the poor bioavailability and undetermined bio-metabolism of most saponins have greatly hindered both the development of medicines and the identification of their real active constituents. Thus, it is essential to consider the bio-metabolism of constituents before and after absorption. In this review, we described the structures of minor ginsenosides in P. quinquefolius, including naturally occurring protype compounds and their in vivo metabolites. The preclinical and clinical pharmacological studies of the ginsenosides in the past few years were also summarized. The review will promote the reacquaint of minor saponins on the growing appreciation of their biological role in P. quinquefolius.

Role of Phytochemicals in Skin Photoprotection via Regulation of Nrf2

Ethnopharmacological studies have become increasingly valuable in the development of botanical products and their bioactive phytochemicals as novel and effective preventive and therapeutic strategies for various diseases including skin photoaging and photodamage-related skin problems including abnormal pigmentation and inflammation. Exploring the roles of phytochemicals in mitigating ultraviolet radiation (UVR)-induced skin damage is thus of importance to offer insights into medicinal and ethnopharmacological potential for development of novel and effective photoprotective agents. UVR plays a role in the skin premature aging (or photoaging) or impaired skin integrity and function through triggering various biological responses of skin cells including apoptosis, oxidative stress, DNA damage and inflammation. In addition, melanin produced by epidermal melanocytes play a protective role against UVR-induced skin damage and therefore hyperpigmentation mediated by UV irradiation could reflect a sign of defensive response of the skin to stress. However, alteration in melanin synthesis may be implicated in skin damage, particularly in individuals with fair skin. Oxidative stress induced by UVR contributes to the process of skin aging and inflammation through the activation of related signaling pathways such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/activator protein-1 (AP-1), the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) in epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. ROS formation induced by UVR also plays a role in regulation of melanogenesis in melanocytes via modulating MAPK, PI3K/Akt and the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R)-microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) signaling cascades. Additionally, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-regulated antioxidant defenses can affect the major signaling pathways involved in regulation of photoaging, inflammation associated with skin barrier dysfunction and melanogenesis. This review thus highlights the roles of phytochemicals potentially acting as Nrf2 inducers in improving photoaging, inflammation and hyperpigmentation via regulation of cellular homeostasis involved in skin integrity and function. Taken together, understanding the role of phytochemicals targeting Nrf2 in photoprotection could provide an insight into potential development of natural products as a promising strategy to delay skin photoaging and improve skin conditions.

Chemical Distance Measurement and System Pharmacology Approach Uncover the Novel Protective Effects of Biotransformed Ginsenoside C-Mc against UVB-Irradiated Photoaging

Long-term exposure to ultraviolet light induces photoaging and may eventually increase the risk of skin carcinogenesis. Rare minor ginsenosides isolating from traditional medicine Panax (ginseng) have shown biomedical efficacy as antioxidation and antiphotodamage agents. However, due to the difficulty of component extraction and wide variety of ginsenoside, the identification of active antiphotoaging ginsenoside remains a huge challenge. In this study, we proposed a novel in silico approach to identify potential compound against photoaging from 82 ginsenosides. Specifically, we calculated the shortest distance between unknown and known antiphotoaging ginsenoside set in the chemical space and applied chemical structure similarity assessment, drug-likeness screening, and ADMET evaluation for the candidates. We highlighted three rare minor ginsenosides (C-Mc, Mx, and F2) that possess high potential as antiphotoaging agents. Among them, C-Mc deriving from American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) was validated by wet-lab experimental assays and showed significant antioxidant and cytoprotective activity against UVB-induced photodamage in human dermal fibroblasts. Furthermore, system pharmacology analysis was conducted to explore the therapeutic targets and molecular mechanisms through integrating global drug-target network, high quality photoaging-related gene profile from multiomics data, and skin tissue-specific expression protein network. In combination with in vitro assays, we found that C-Mc suppressed MMP production through regulating the MAPK/AP-1/NF-κB pathway and expedited collagen synthesis via the TGF-β/Smad pathway, as well as enhanced the expression of Nrf2/ARE to hold a balance of endogenous oxidation. Overall, this study offers an effective drug discovery framework combining in silico prediction and in vitro validation, uncovering that ginsenoside C-Mc has potential antiphotoaging properties and might be a novel natural agent for use in oral drug, skincare products, or functional food.

The Effects of Ginsenosides on the Nrf2 Signaling Pathway

Nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a major signaling pathway for the maintenance of homeostasis and redox balance. This pathway also plays a significant role in proteostasis, xenobiotic/drug metabolism, apoptosis, and lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Conversely, the Nrf2 signaling pathway is impaired in several pathological conditions including cancer. Although various drugs have been developed to target the Nrf2 pathway, plant-derived chemicals than can potentially impact this pathway and are particularly attractive due to their minimal side effects. Ginsenosides are active components of ginseng and have been shown to exert pharmacological effects including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antidiabetes, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective activities. In this article, we have reviewed the effects of ginsenosides on Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Anti-melanogenic property of ginsenoside Rf from Panax ginseng via inhibition of CREB/MITF pathway in melanocytes and ex vivo human skin

Background

Ginsenosides of Panax ginseng are used to enhance skin health and beauty. The present study aimed to investigate the potential use of ginsenoside Rf (Rf) from Panax ginseng as a new anti-pigmentation agent.

Methods

The anti-melanogenic effects of Rf were explored. The transcriptional activity of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element binding protein (CREB) and the expression levels of tyrosinase, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), and tyrosinase-related proteins (Tyrps) were evaluated in melanocytes and UV-irradiated ex vivo human skin.

Results

Rf significantly inhibited Forskolin (FSK) or UV-stimulated melanogenesis. Consistently, cellular tyrosinase activity and levels of MITF, tyrosinase, and Tyrps were downregulated. Furthermore, Rf suppressed MITF promoter activity, which was stimulated by FSK or CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 3 (CRTC3) overexpression. Increased CREB phosphorylation and protein kinase A (PKA) activity induced by FSK were also mitigated in the presence of Rf.

Conclusion

Rf can be used as a reliable anti-pigmentation agent, which has a scientifically confirmed and reproducible action mechanism, via inhibition of CREB/MITF pathway.

Salicylic acid in ginseng root alleviates skin hyperpigmentation disorders by inhibiting melanogenesis and melanosome transport

Abnormal melanogenesis and melanosome transport can cause skin pigmentation disorders that are often treated using ginseng-based formulation. We previously found that phenolic acid compounds in ginseng root could inhibit melanin production and as a skin-whitening agents. However, mechanisms of action underlying effects of ginseng phenolic acid monomers on melanogenesis remain unclear. This study was conducted to investigate effects of salicylic acid, a main ginseng root phenolic acid component, on melanogenesis and melanosome functions in melanocytes of zebrafish and other species. Salicylic acid exhibited no cytotoxicity and reduced melanin levels and tyrosinase activity in B16F10 murine melanoma cells and normal human epidermal melanocytes regardless of prior cell stimulation with α-melanocyte stimulating hormone. Additionally, salicylic acid treatment reduced expression of melanogenic enzymes tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein 1 and tyrosinase-related protein 2, while reducing expression of their master transcriptional regulator, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. Moreover, reduced phosphorylation of cAMP response-element binding protein was observed due to reduced cAMP levels resulting from salicylic acid inhibition of upstream signal regulators (adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A). Furthermore, salicylic acid treatment suppressed expression of transport complex-associated proteins melanophilin and myosin Va in two UVB-treated melanocytic cell lines, suppressed phagocytosis of fluorescent microspheres by UVB-stimulated human keratinocytes (HaCaT), inhibited protease-activated receptor 2 activation by reducing both Ca²⁺ release and activation of phosphoinositide 3 kinase/AKT and mitogen-activated protein kinases and induced anti-melanogenic effects in zebrafish. Collectively, these results indicate that salicylic acid within ginseng root can inhibit melanocyte melanogenesis and melanin transport, while also suppressing keratinocyte phagocytic function.

Effect of ultraviolet radiation on the Nrf2 signaling pathway in skin cells

PURPOSE

Excessive exposure of skin to solar radiation is associated with greatly increased production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS, RNS) resulting in oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, immunosuppression, the production of matrix metalloproteinase, DNA damage and mutations. These events lead to increased incidence of various skin disorders including photoaing and both non-melanoma and melanoma skin cancers. The ultraviolet (UV) part of sunlight, in particular, is responsible for structural and cellular changes across the different layers of the skin. Among other effects, UV photons stimulate oxidative damage to biomolecules via the generation of unstable and highly reactive compounds. In response to oxidative damage, cytoprotective pathways are triggered. One of these is the pathway driven by the nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2). This transcription factor translocates to the nucleus and drives the expression of numerous genes, among them various detoxifying and antioxidant enzymes. Several studies concerning the effects of UV radiation on Nrf2 activation have been published, but different UV wavelengths, skin cells or tissues and incubation periods were used in the experiments that complicate the evaluation of UV radiation effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the effects of UVB (280-315 nm) and UVA (315-400 nm) radiation on the Nrf2 signaling pathway in dermal fibroblasts and epidermal keratinocytes and melanocytes. The effects of natural compounds (pure compounds or mixtures) on Nrf2 activation and level as well as on Nrf2-driven genes in UV irradiated human skin fibroblasts, keratinocytes and melanocytes are briefly mentioned as well.HighlightsUVB radiation is a rather poor activator of the Nrf2-driven pathway in fibroblastsUVA radiation stimulates Nrf2 activation in dermal fibroblastsEffects of UVA on the Nrf2 pathway in keratinocytes and melanocytes remain unclearLong-term Nrf2 activation in keratinocytes disturbs their normal differentiationPharmacological activation of Nrf2 in the skin needs to be performed carefully.

Recent development in zebrafish model for bioactivity and safety evaluation of natural products

The zebrafish is a species of freshwater fish, popular in aquariums and laboratories. Several advantageous features have facilitated zebrafish to be extensively utilized as a valuable vertebrate model in the lab. It has been well-recognized that natural products possess multiple health benefits for humans. With the increasing demand for natural products in the development of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and natural cosmetics, the zebrafish has emerged as an unprecedented tool for rapidly and economically screening and identifying safe and effective substances from natural products. This review first summarized the key factors for the management of zebrafish in the laboratory, followed by highlighting the current progress on the establishment and applications of zebrafish models in the bioactivity evaluation of natural products. In addition, the zebrafish models used for assessing the potential toxicity or health risks of natural products were involved as well. Overall, this review indicates that zebrafish are promising animal models for the bioactivity and safety evaluation of natural products, and zebrafish models can accelerate the discovery of novel natural products with potential health functions.

Lactoferrin-ginsenoside Rg3 complex ingredients: Study of interaction mechanism and preparation of oil-in-water emulsion

Revealing the interaction mechanism between bovine lactoferrin (LF) and 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), thereby introducing Rg3 to LF and even into stable emulsions will contribute significantly to food valorization and food industry. Adding Rg3 to LF caused slight absorbance increment and static fluorescence quench of LF, implying the successful combination. Synchronous fluorescence, three-dimensional fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy indicated the conformation changing of LF after binding with Rg3. Thermodynamic analysis showed that the binding happened spontaneously to form a LF-Rg3 complex with a molar ratio of 1:1, which was mainly driven by hydrogen bonding and van der Waals force. Molecular docking simulation provided extensive information about the optimized binding sites and the involved interactions. Finally, we prepared stable LF-Rg3 oil-in-water emulsion, showing great potential in foods and beverages. This work prepares all-natural functional ingredients, and also diversifies the effective food molecule-based delivery systems for LF and Rg3.

The regulatory role of Korean ginseng in skin cells

As the largest organ in our body, the skin acts as a barrier against external stress and damages. There are various cell types of skin, such as keratinocytes, melanocytes, fibroblasts, and skin stem cells. Korean ginseng, which is one of the biggest distributions of ginseng worldwide, is processed into different products, such as functional food, cosmetics, and medical supplies. This review aims to introduce the functional role of Korean ginseng on different dermal cell types, including the impact of Korean ginseng in anti-photodamaging, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-melanogenic, and wound healing activities, etc. We propose that this information could form the basis of future research of ginseng-derived components in skin health.

Ginsenoside from ginseng: a promising treatment for inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an autoimmune disease mediated by immune disorder and termed as one of the most refractory diseases by the Word Health Organization. Its morbidity has increased steadily over the past half century worldwide. Environmental, genetic, infectious, and immune factors are integral to the pathogenesis of IBD. Commonly known as the king of herbs, ginseng has been consumed in many countries for the past 2000 years. Its active ingredient ginsenosides, as the most prominent saponins of ginseng, have a wide range of pharmacological effects. Recent studies have confirmed that the active components of Panax ginseng have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects on IBD, including regulating the balance of immune cells, inhibiting the expression of cytokines, as well as activating Toll-like receptor 4, Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLRP), mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, and so on. Accumulated evidence indicates that ginsenosides may serve as a potential novel therapeutic drug or health product additive in IBD prevention and treatment in the future.

Panacis Quinquefolii Radix: A Review of the Botany, Phytochemistry, Quality Control, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Industrial Applications Research Progress

On January 2, 2020, The National Health Commission and the State Administration for Market Regulation listed Panacis Quinquefolii Radix (PQR) as a medicinal and food homologous product. PQR is the dry root of Panax quinquefolium L., which has the functions of replenishing qi and nourishing Yin, clearing heat and producing body fluid. It is often used for qi deficiency and Yin deficiency, heat exhaustion, asthma and phlegm, dry mouth and pharynx. PQR is sweet, slightly bitter and cool in nature, and enter the heart, lung and kidney meridian exerts the remedial and hygienical effect. At present, active components such as saponins, flavonoids, fatty acids, polyalkynes, volatile oils and other nutrients such as amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins and trace elements have been isolated from PQR. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that PQR has the effects of hypoglycemic, antihypertensive, anti fatigue, anti-oxidation, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective and so on. In addition, PQR is recognized as a health care product to strengthen the body and dispel diseases. It is not only the raw material of Traditional Chinese medicine preparations, but also the treasure of dietary therapy and herbal cuisine. This study not only reviewed the botany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of PQR, but also summarized its quality control, toxicity and industrial applications for the first time. This paper not only summarizes the development status of PQR, but also analyzes the shortcomings of the current research on PQR, and puts forward the corresponding solutions, in order to provide reference for future scholars to study PQR.

Natural Nrf2 Modulators for Skin Protection

Since the discovery of antioxidant responsive elements (ARE), which are commonly found in the promoter of the Phase II metabolism/antioxidant enzymes, and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), the transcription factor that binds to ARE, the study conducted in this field has expanded remarkably over the decades, and the Nrf2-mediated pathway is now recognized to occupy a central position in cell defense mechanisms. Induction of the Phase II metabolism/antioxidant enzymes through direct activation of Nrf2 can be a promising strategy for preventing degenerative diseases in general, but a dark side of this strategy should be considered, as Nrf2 activation can enhance the survival of cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the historical discovery of Nrf2 and the regulatory mechanism of the Nrf2-mediated pathway, focusing on the interacting proteins and post-translational modifications. In addition, we discuss the latest studies that examined various natural Nrf2 modulators for the protective roles in the skin, in consideration of their dermatological and cosmetic applications. Studies are reviewed in the order of time of research as much as possible, to help understand how and why such studies were conducted under the circumstances of that time. We hope that this review can serve as a steppingstone in conducting more advanced research by providing a scientific basis for researchers newly entering this field.