Pain perception in healthy young men is modified by time-of-day and is modality dependent

Pressure and cold pain threshold reference values in a pain-free older adult population

Background

More sex-specific pain sensitivity normative values from population-based cohorts in pain-free older adults are required. The aims of this study were (1) to provide sex- and age-specific normative values of pressure and cold pain thresholds in older pain-free adults and (2) to examine the association of potential correlates of pain sensitivity with pain threshold values.

Methods

This study investigated sex-specific pressure (lumbar spine, tibialis anterior, neck and dorsal wrist) and cold (dorsal wrist) pain threshold estimates for older pain-free adults aged 41-70 years. This cross-sectional study used participants (n = 212) from the Raine Study Gen1-26 year follow-up. The association of pain thresholds, with correlates including sex, test site, ethnicity, waist-hip ratio, smoking status, health-related quality of life, depression, anxiety and stress symptoms, sleep quality, socioeconomic status and physical activity levels, was examined.

Results

Values for pressure and cold pain thresholds for older pain-free adults are provided, grouped by vicennium, sex and test site (pressure). Statistically significant independent correlates of increased pressure pain sensitivity were test site, ethnicity and sex. Only lower waist/hip ratio was a statistically significant, independent correlate of increased cold pain sensitivity.

Conclusions

This study provides robust sex- and age-specific normative values for pressure pain threshold and cold pain threshold for an older adult pain-free population. Combined with existing values, these data provide an important resource in assisting interpretation of pain sensitivity in clinical pain disorders and provide insights into the complex association of pain sensitivity with correlates that can be used in research.

The role of diurnal variation in development of musculoskeletal pain during prolonged standing

BACKGROUND

Research suggests mechanical changes occur to the body over the course of the day including shrinking of the intervertebral disc height which can increase rotational stiffness and rigidity of the spinal column. Further, pain sensitivity has been observed to fluctuate throughout the day, suggesting variations in pain sensitivity. Previous work has identified biomechanical and neuromuscular features related to the development of musculoskeletal pain during prolonged standing; however, many protocols have not controlled for time of day.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Does the time of day (i.e., diurnal variation) have an effect on the common neuromuscular and biomechanical variables characterizing the development of standing musculoskeletal pain in a two-hour prolonged standing protocol?

METHODS

A convenience sample of 20 healthy young adults (10 female and 10 male) completed two 2-hour prolonged standing bouts (8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m.) on separate days. Visual analogue scales were used to measure pain perception of the low back, legs, and feet throughout each protocol. Neuromuscular control was measured using surface EMG on muscles of the trunk and lower extremities. Postural sway was captured using measures of joint range of motion, and the analysis of center of pressure trajectory data using a force plate.

RESULTS

Diurnal variation was observed to influence the development of musculoskeletal pain. Specifically, pain perception was found to be increased in the evenings as more participants were classified as pain developers in the PM sessions, and mean leg and foot pain perceptions were higher in the evening. Reduced postural sway patterns, and elevated co-contraction indices were found to be associated with the development of pain.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results suggest that future research assessing standing-pain protocols should control for time of day. Additionally, further research is warranted to explore the mechanistic causes of the development of standing pain.

Race-specific associations: inflammatory mediators and chronic low back pain

ABSTRACT

Chronic low back pain (cLBP) is a global health crisis that disproportionately burdens non-Hispanic Black (NHB) individuals, compared with those who identify as non-Hispanic White (NHW). Despite the growing personal and societal impact of cLBP, its biological underpinnings remain poorly understood. To elucidate the biological factors that underlie the racial disparities in cLBP, this study sought to determine whether inflammatory mediators associated with pain interference (PI), pain at rest (PAR), and movement-evoked pain (MEP) differ as a function of racial identity. Blood samples were collected from 156 individuals with cLBP (n = 98 NHB participants, n = 58 NHW participants). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and multiplex assays were used to quantify concentrations of proinflammatory (fibrinogen, C-reactive protein [CRP], serum amyloid A, tumor necrosis factor α [TNF-α], and interleukin [IL]-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and anti-inflammatory markers (IL-4 and IL-13). Spearman rho correlations were used to assess associations among markers of inflammation and PI, PAR, and MEP using the Brief Pain Inventory-Short Form. Analyses revealed that for NHW patients, CRP, serum amyloid A, and IL-6 were positively associated with cLBP outcomes and IL-4 was inversely associated with PAR and MEP. However, for NHB patients, only IL-1α was positively associated with PAR. Our findings suggest that, while there are associations between inflammation and cLBP outcomes, the biomarkers that underlie the inflammation could very well differ as a function of racialized minority group. However, more research with racially inclusive samples is needed to elucidate the mechanisms that may contribute to racial disparities in cLBP.

Circadian functional changes of pain-processing brainstem nuclei and implications for cluster headache: A 7 Tesla imaging study

BACKGROUND

Pain thresholds and primary headaches, including cluster headache attacks, have circadian rhythmicity. Thus, they might share a common neuronal mechanism.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to elucidate how the modulation of nociceptive input in the brainstem changes from noon to midnight. Insights into the mechanism of these fluctuations could allow for new hypotheses about the pathophysiology of cluster headache.

METHODS

This repeated measure observational study was conducted at the University Hospital Zurich from December 2019 to November 2022. Healthy adults between 18 and 85 years of age were eligible. All participants were examined at noon and midnight. We tested the pain threshold on both sides of the foreheads with quantitative sensory testing, assessed tiredness levels, and obtained high-field (7 Tesla) and high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at each visit. Functional connectivity was assessed at the two visits by performing a region-of-interest analysis. We defined nuclei in the brainstem implicated in processing nociceptive input as well as the thalamus and suprachiasmatic nucleus as the region-of-interest.

RESULTS

Ten people were enrolled, and seven participants were included. First, we did not find statistically significant differences between noon and midnight of A-delta-mediated pain thresholds (median mechanical pain threshold at noon: left 9.2, right 9.2; at night: left 6.5, right 6.1). Second, after correction for a false discovery rate, we found changes in the mechanical pain sensitivity to have a statistically significant effect on changes in the functional connectivity between the left parabrachial nucleus and the suprachiasmatic nucleus (T = -40.79).

CONCLUSION

The MRI data analysis suggested that brain stem nuclei and the hypothalamus modulate A-delta-mediated pain perception; however, these changes in pain perception did not lead to statistically significantly differing pain thresholds between noon and midnight. Hence, our findings shed doubt on our hypothesis that the physiologic circadian rhythmicity of pain thresholds could drive the circadian rhythmicity of cluster headache attacks.

How does circadian rhythm affect postoperative pain after pediatric acute appendicitis surgery?

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between postoperative pain and circadian rhythm after pediatric acute appendicitis surgery.

METHODS

Two hundred patients, aged 6-18 years, undergoing acute appendicitis surgery were included in this prospective observational study. The patients were divided into four groups according to the time they underwent surgery: the night group, 01:01-07:00; morning group, 07:01-13:00; afternoon group, 13:01-19:00; and evening group, 19:01-01:00. Intraoperative and postoperative vital signs, postoperative 24-h Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale (FACEs) scores, and the amount of analgesic required were recorded.

RESULTS

A total of 186 patients were analyzed in the study. There was no statistically significant difference in the demographic characteristics of the patient groups. Additionally, no differences were observed in intraoperative and postoperative vital signs among the four groups. However, patients in the night group had significantly higher FACEs values than those in the other groups at each time point (1st, 3rd, 6th, and 12th h) up to 12 h (P = 0.007, P = 0.023, P = 0.048, and P = 0.003, respectively). The amount of analgesic required in the night group was statistically higher than in the other groups until 12 h (P = 0.002, P < 0.001, P = 0.002, and P = 0.004, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

A relationship was found between acute appendicitis operations performed at night (01:01 to 07:00) under general anesthesia and circadian rhythm in children. We believe that considering circadian time in the relief of postoperative pain would be beneficial.

Familiarity From Facial Appearance Leads to Hypoalgesia

Social context has been shown to influence pain perception. This study aimed to broaden this literature by investigating whether relevant social stimuli, such as faces with different levels of intrinsic (based on physical resemblance to known individuals) and episodic (acquired through a previous experience) familiarity, may lead to hypoalgesia. We hypothesized that familiarity, whether intrinsic or acquired through experience, would increase pain threshold and decrease pain intensity. Sixty-seven participants underwent pain induction (the cold pressor test) viewing previously seen faces (Episodic Group) or new faces (Non-episodic Group) that differed in the level of intrinsic familiarity (high vs low). Pain threshold was measured in seconds, while pain intensity was measured on a rating scale of 0 to 10. The results did not show an effect of episodic familiarity. However, compared to low, high intrinsic familiar faces had an attenuating effect on pain intensity, even after controlling for pain expectation. These results suggest that physical features conveying a higher feeling of familiarity induce a top-down hypoalgesic modulation, in line with the idea that familiarity may signal safety and that the presence of familiar others reduce perceived threat-related distress. This study provides further evidence on the social modulation of pain and contributes to the literature on first impressions' influence on social behavior. PERSPECTIVE: Consistent with the idea that familiar others signal safety and reduce the sense of threat, facial features conveying familiarity induce a top-down hypoalgesic modulation. This knowledge may contribute to understanding differences in pain perception in experimental and clinical contexts.

Intra- and interindividual reliability of muscle pain induced by an intramuscular injection of hypertonic saline injection into the quadriceps

BACKGROUND

Intramuscular injections of hypertonic saline are commonly used to induce experimental muscle pain, but reliability data on this technique are lacking. This study investigated the intra- and interindividual reliability of pain measures from a hypertonic saline injection into the vastus lateralis.

METHODS

Fourteen healthy participants (6 female) attended three laboratory visits where they received an intramuscular injection of 1 mL hypertonic saline into the vastus lateralis. Changes in pain intensity were recorded on an electronic visual analogue scale, and pain quality was assessed after pain had resolved. Reliability was assessed with the coefficient of variation (CV), minimum detectable change (MDC) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) with 95% CIs.

RESULTS

Mean pain intensity displayed high levels of intraindividual variability (CV = 16.3 [10.5-22.0]%) and 'poor' to 'very good' relative reliability (ICC = 0.71 [0.45-0.88]) but had a MDC of 11 [8-16] au (out of 100). Peak pain intensity exhibited high levels of intraindividual variability (CV = 14.8 [8.8-20.8]%) with 'moderate' to 'excellent' levels of relative reliability (ICC = 0.81 [0.62-0.92]), whereas the MDC was 18 [14-26] au. Measures of pain quality exhibited good reliability. Interindividual variability in pain measures was high (CV > 37%).

CONCLUSIONS

Intramuscular injections of 1 mL of hypertonic saline into the vastus lateralis display substantial levels of interindividual variability, but MDC is below the clinically important changes in pain. This model of experimental pain is suitable for studies involving repeated exposures.

SIGNIFICANCE

Many pain research studies have performed intramuscular injections of hypertonic saline to investigate responses to muscle pain. However, the reliability of this technique is not well established. We examined the pain response over three repeated sessions of a hypertonic saline injection. The pain induced by hypertonic saline has considerable interindividual variability but has largely acceptable intraindividual reliability. Therefore, the injections of hypertonic saline to induce muscle pain are a reliable model of experimental muscle pain.

Circadian rhythms in colonic function

A rhythmic expression of clock genes occurs within the cells of multiple organs and tissues throughout the body, termed "peripheral clocks." Peripheral clocks are subject to entrainment by a multitude of factors, many of which are directly or indirectly controlled by the light-entrainable clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Peripheral clocks occur in the gastrointestinal tract, notably the epithelia whose functions include regulation of absorption, permeability, and secretion of hormones; and in the myenteric plexus, which is the intrinsic neural network principally responsible for the coordination of muscular activity in the gut. This review focuses on the physiological circadian variation of major colonic functions and their entraining mechanisms, including colonic motility, absorption, hormone secretion, permeability, and pain signalling. Pathophysiological states such as irritable bowel syndrome and ulcerative colitis and their interactions with circadian rhythmicity are also described. Finally, the classic circadian hormone melatonin is discussed, which is expressed in the gut in greater quantities than the pineal gland, and whose exogenous use has been of therapeutic interest in treating colonic pathophysiological states, including those exacerbated by chronic circadian disruption.

S-Cone Photoreceptors Regulate Daily Rhythms and Light-Induced Arousal/Wakefulness in Diurnal Grass Rats (Arvicanthis niloticus)

Beyond visual perception, light has non-image-forming effects mediated by melanopsin-expressing, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). The present study first used multielectrode array recordings to show that in a diurnal rodent, Nile grass rats (Arvicanthis niloticus), ipRGCs generate rod/cone-driven and melanopsin-based photoresponses that stably encode irradiance. Subsequently, two ipRGC-mediated non-image-forming effects, namely entrainment of daily rhythms and light-induced arousal, were examined. Animals were first housed under a 12:12 h light/dark cycle (lights-on at 0600 h) with the light phase generated by a low-irradiance fluorescent light (F12), a daylight spectrum (D65) stimulating all photoreceptors, or a narrowband 480 nm spectrum (480) that maximized melanopsin stimulation and minimized S-cone stimulation (λmax 360 nm) compared to D65. Daily rhythms of locomotor activities showed onset and offset closer to lights-on and lights-off, respectively, in D65 and 480 than in F12, and higher day/night activity ratio under D65 versus 480 and F12, suggesting the importance of S-cone stimulation. To assess light-induced arousal, 3-h light exposures using 4 spectra that stimulated melanopsin equally but S-cones differentially were superimposed on F12 background lighting: D65, 480, 480 + 365 (narrowband 365 nm), and D65 - 365. Compared to the F12-only condition, all four pulses increased in-cage activity and promoted wakefulness, with 480 + 365 having the greatest and longest-lasting wakefulness-promoting effects, again indicating the importance of stimulating S-cones as well as melanopsin. These findings provide insights into the temporal dynamics of photoreceptor contributions to non-image-forming photoresponses in a diurnal rodent that may help guide future studies of lighting environments and phototherapy protocols that promote human health and productivity.

The Effects of Recovery Sleep on Experimental Pain

Recent research suggests that recovery sleep (RS) has the potential to restore pain sensitivity and modulation after hyperalgesia due to preceding sleep deprivation. However, it has not yet been systematically examined whether the restoration of these pain parameters is driven by sleep characteristics of RS. Thus, the present study assessed changes in experimental pain during RS after total sleep deprivation (TSD) to test whether RS parameters predicted the restoration of the pain system. Thirty healthy participants completed one night of habitual sleep, one night of TSD and a subsequent recovery night. At-home sleep during baseline and recovery was assessed using portable polysomnography and a questionnaire. Before and after each night pressure pain thresholds (PPTs), temporal pain summation (TSP) and conditioned pain modulation (CPM) were assessed. PPTs decreased after TSD and increased following RS, indicating a restoration of pain sensitivity after hyperalgesia. RS characteristics did not predict this restoration, suggesting other mechanisms (eg, changes in serotonergic activity) underlying the observed pain changes. TSP indicated a lack of effect of experimental sleep manipulations on excitatory processes whereas CPM lacked sufficient reliability to investigate inhibitory processes. Thus, results indicate moderate effects of sleep manipulations on pain sensitivity, but not on pain modulation. PERSPECTIVE: This article highlights the potential of recovery sleep to let pain thresholds return to normal following their decrease after a night of total sleep deprivation. In contrast, endogenous pain modulation (temporal pain summation, conditioned pain modulation) was not affected by sleep deprivation and recovery sleep.

When does self-report of pain occur?: A study of older adults

Technologies for self-care can drive participatory health and promote independence of older adults. One self-care activity is regularly measuring and registering personal health indicators (self-reporting). Older adults may benefit from this practice, as they are more likely to have chronic health issues and have specific self-monitoring needs. However, self-reporting technologies are usually not designed specifically for them. Pain is usually measured using patient reports compiled during medical appointments, although this process may be affected by memory bias and under reporting of fluctuating pain. To address these issues, we introduced a simple tangible interface to self-report pain levels and conducted a three-hour evaluation with 24 older adults. The goal of this study was to identify whether specific activities, activity levels or pain levels trigger older adults to self-report their pain level, besides to understand how older adults would use such a device. Within the limited time frame of the experiment, the majority of our participants chose to report pain when they felt it most, not reporting lower levels of pain. No evidence was found to suggest a relationship between the reporting of pain and the activity (or activity level). Several design insights intended to improve the design of technologies are provided.

Symptomatic but not Asymptomatic COVID-19 Impairs Conditioned Pain Modulation in Young Adults

Pain is a common symptom reported in COVID-19 patients. Impaired endogenous pain-modulatory mechanisms such as conditioned pain modulation (CPM), and exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH) have been found in chronic pain conditions but is often overlooked in acute conditions that evoke painful symptoms, such as COVID-19. The purpose was to compare pressure-pain sensitivity, CPM, and EIH function among individuals who previously had COVID-19, both symptomatically and asymptomatically, and a healthy control group. Pressure pain thresholds of 59 participants were assessed in the forearm and leg using a pressure algometer before and after 1) submersion of their dominant foot in cold water (2°C) for 1min; and 2) isometric knee extension performed to task-failure at 25% of their maximal contraction. The CPM response was attenuated in individuals who were infected with symptomatic COVID-19 (N = 26) compared to asymptomatic COVID-19 (N = 13) in arm (-1.0% ± 20.3 vs 33.3% ± 26.2; P < .001) and leg (12.8% ± 22.0 vs 33.8% ± 28.2; P = .014) and compared to controls (N = 20) in arm only (-1.0% ± 26.2 vs 23.4% ± 28.2; P = .004). The EIH response was not different between groups. CPM was impaired in individuals who had symptomatic COVID-19, which may have long-term implications on pain modulation.

Perspective

This study reveals that CPM was impaired in individuals who had symptomatic COVID-19 during the first wave of COVID-19, pre vaccine. These findings present a preliminary motive to study the long-term implications of COVID-19 and its effects on pain modulation.

Does art reduce pain and stress? A registered report protocol of investigating autonomic and endocrine markers of music, visual art, and multimodal aesthetic experience

The pain- and stress-reducing effects of music are well-known, but the effects of visual art, and the combination of these two, are much less investigated. We aim to (1) investigate the pain- and (2) stress-reducing effects of multimodal (music + visual art) aesthetic experience as we expect this to have stronger effects than a single modal aesthetic experience (music/ visual art), and in an exploratory manner, (3) investigate the underlying mechanisms of aesthetic experience, and the (4) individual differences. In a repeated-measures design (music, visual art, multimodal aesthetic experience, control) participants bring self-selected “movingly beautiful” visual artworks and pieces of music to the lab, where pain and stress are induced by the cold pressor test. Activity of the pain and stress responsive systems are measured by subjective reports, autonomic (electrocardiography, electrodermal activity, salivary alpha-amylase) and endocrine markers (salivary cortisol).

Hypohydration but not Menstrual Phase Influences Pain Perception in Healthy Women

Chronic pain is a pervasive health problem and is associated with tremendous socioeconomic costs. However, current pain treatments are often ineffective due, in part, to the multi-factorial nature of pain. Mild hypohydration was shown to increase experimental pain sensitivity in men, but whether this also occurs in women has not been examined. Fluctuations in ovarian hormones (i.e., 17ß-oestradiol and progesterone) throughout the menstrual cycle may influence a woman's pain sensitivity, as well as hydration levels, suggesting possible interactions between hypohydration and menstrual phase on pain. We investigated the effects of mild hypohydration (HYPO, 24 hr of fluid restriction) on ischaemic pain sensitivity in 14 eumenorrheic women during the early follicular (EF) and mid-luteal (ML) phases of their menstrual cycle. We also examined whether acute water ingestion could reverse the negative effects of hypohydration. Elevated serum osmolality, plasma copeptin, and urine specific gravity indicated mild hypohydration. Compared to euhydration, HYPO reduced pain tolerance (by 34 ± 46 s; P = 0.02, ηp2 = 0.37) and increased ratings of pain intensity (by 0.7 ± 0.7 cm; P = 0.004; ηp2 = 0.55) and unpleasantness (by 0.7 ± 0.9 cm; P = 0.02; ηp2 = 0.40); these results were not influenced by menstrual phase. Water ingestion reduced thirst perception (Visual Analogue Scale, by 2.3 ± 0.9 cm; P < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.88) but did not reduce pain sensitivity. Therefore, hypohydration increases pain sensitivity in women with no influence of menstrual phase.

The Influence of Hand Dominance in Wrist Fracture Post-Operative Functional Evaluation

Sensorimotor testing is used to measure outcomes in surgery, to document results of treatment and rehabilitation, and to compare results between surgeons, therapists, and institutions. When performing sensorimotor testing, failure to address dominant side differences may cause a bias in evaluation of outcomes. This study evaluated the effect of hand dominance on outcomes testing performed on patients following surgery for distal radius fractures (DRF). We hypothesized that the injured dominant hand will perform differently than the injured non-dominant hand. This is a retrospective study of patients following DRF treated surgically and evaluated in therapy. The patients were evaluated at fixed intervals: initially, at 6 weeks, and at 3 months post-surgery. Testing included grip strength, monofilaments, static and moving 2-point discrimination, Moberg testing, and stereognosis. Sixty patients included 46 (76.6%) females. Age averaged 62.1 (standard deviation: 16.9) years, and 54 were right-handed (90%). There were differences between dominant and non-dominant hand injury in 2 of 9 tests of sensibility for each time period, including little finger monofilament and Moberg testing initially, and moving 2-point discrimination in the little finger, monofilament testing of the thumb at 3 months. Both groups improved between initial and 3-month evaluation without differences in amount of improvement. Despite some significant differences in the applied tests between dominant and non-dominant injured hands, our results do not support correction for hand-dominance when using the described examinations in evaluating outcomes following DRF surgery.

Partner Pain and Affect in the Daily Lives of Older Couples

OBJECTIVES

The susceptibility of older adults' affect to fluctuations in their own health (within-person health sensitivity) indicates how they handle everyday health challenges. In old age, affective well-being is often increasingly influenced by close others, yet it is unknown whether older adults' affect is additionally susceptible to fluctuations in their spouse's health (within-partnership health sensitivity) and the extent to which age and relationship satisfaction moderate such associations.

METHODS

Parallel sets of multi-level actor-partner interdependence models are applied to self-reported health (feelings of pain/discomfort) and positive and negative affect, obtained 6 times a day over 7 consecutive days from two independent samples, the Berlin Couple Dynamics Study (N= 87 couples; Mage= 75 years; M relationship length= 46 years) and the Socio-Economic Panel Couple Dynamics Study (N= 151 couples; Mage= 72 years; M relationship length= 47 years).

RESULTS

Husbands and wives had lower positive affect and higher negative affect in moments when they reported more pain (within-person health sensitivity) and when their respective spouse reported more pain (within-partnership health sensitivity). Tests for moderation suggest that within-person, but not within-partnership, health sensitivity is lower at older ages and higher with more satisfying relationships.

DISCUSSION

These findings empirically illustrate lifespan notions that close relationships shape time-varying health-affect links and thus underscore the theoretical and practical utility of examining social contextual antecedents of older adults' everyday affective well-being.

Cluster Headache Pathophysiology—A Disorder of Network Excitability?

Patients’ accounts of cluster headache attacks, ictal restlessness, and electrophysiological studies suggest that the pathophysiology involves Aδ-fibre nociceptors and the network processing their input. Continuous activity of the trigeminal autonomic reflex throughout the in-bout period results in central sensitization of these networks in many patients. It is likely that several factors force circadian rhythmicity upon the disease. In addition to sensitization, circadian changes in pain perception and autonomic innervation might influence the excitability of the trigeminal cervical complex. Summation of several factors influencing pain perception might render neurons vulnerable to spontaneous depolarization, particularly at the beginning of rapid drops of the pain threshold (“summation headache”). In light of studies suggesting an impairment of short-term synaptic plasticity in CH patients, we suggest that the physiologic basis of CH attacks might be network overactivity—similarly to epileptic seizures. Case reports documenting cluster-like attacks support the idea of distinct factors being transiently able to induce attacks and being relevant in the pathophysiology of the disorder. A sustained and recurring proneness to attacks likely requires changes in the activity of other structures among which the hypothalamus is the most probable candidate.

Assessing the Stiffness Perception of Acupressure Massage Beginning Learners: A Pilot Study

Visually impaired licensed therapists must have the ability to perceive stiffness through their fingertips in the school for the blind. The teachers strive to provide careful introductory education based on a quantitative assessment of new students’ basic stiffness perception. However, assessment materials to help teachers understand new students’ stiffness perception are lacking. This study aimed to develop suitable fundamental assessment materials that visually impaired licensed teachers could use to quantitatively assess the difference in the stiffness perception ability of beginning learners in the early stages of learning. They were asked to discriminate the presented materials one at a time, which consisted of thermoplastic elastomers with different degrees of stiffness. We used these materials to compare the beginning learners’ ability to perceive stiffness with that of teachers and found that teachers answered correctly at an overall significantly higher rate. Specifically, the teachers’ correct response rate (78.8%) for the stiffness perception of all presented stimuli was approximately 15% higher than the beginning learners’ correct response rate (64.2%). These results revealed areas of stiffness that are difficult for beginning learners to identify.

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS): towards the development of a clinic-friendly method for the evaluation of excitatory and inhibitory pain mechanisms

Background: Temporal summation and conditioned pain modulation (CPM) can be measured using a thermode and cold pressor test (CPTest). Unfortunately, these complex and expensive tools are ill-suited for routine clinical assessments.

Aims: We aimed to compare the temporal summation and CPM obtained with the thermode + CPTest paradigm to those obtained with a novel paradigm using transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS).

Methods: We assessed temporal summation and CPM in 29 healthy participants, using two paradigms (random order): TENS, and thermode + CPTest. In the TENS paradigm, both the conditioning stimulus (CS) and the test stimulus (TS) were delivered using TENS; in the thermode + CPTest paradigm, the CS consisted of a CPTest and the TS was delivered using a thermode. We compared the average temporal summation and CPM evoked by the two paradigms.

Results: Average temporal summation was similar for both modalities (P = 0.90), and the number of participants showing temporal summation was similar in both paradigms (19 with thermode vs. 18 with TENS; P = 1.00). Average CPM response was larger following the thermode + CPTest than following the TENS (P = 0.005), and more participants showed CPM with the thermode + CPTest paradigm compared to the TENS paradigm (24 vs. 14; P = 0.01).

Conclusions: Both paradigms were roughly equivalent in the ability to evoke temporal summation (although response to one modality did not predict response to the other), but the TENS paradigm appeared to be less apt to induce a CPM response than the thermode + CPTest paradigm.

Alterations in pronociceptive and antinociceptive mechanisms in patients with low back pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Altered pronociceptive and antinociceptive mechanisms are often implicated in painful conditions and have been increasingly studied over the past decade. For some painful conditions, alterations are well-established, but in populations with low back pain (LBP), there remains considerable debate whether these mechanisms are altered. The present systematic review aimed to address this issue by identifying studies assessing conditioned pain modulation (CPM) and/or temporal summation of pain (TSP) in patients with LBP, comparing with either a healthy control group or using a method with reference data available. Qualitative synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis of group differences were performed. For CPM and TSP, 20 and 29 original articles were eligible, with data for meta-analysis obtainable from 18 (1500 patients and 505 controls) and 27 (1507 patients and 1127 controls) studies, respectively. Most studies were of poor-to-fair quality with significant heterogeneity in study size, population, assessment methodology, and outcome. Nonetheless, CPM was impaired in patients with LBP compared with controls (standardized mean difference = -0.44 [-0.64 to -0.23], P < 0.001), and the magnitude of this impairment was related to pain chronicity (acute/recurrent vs chronic, P = 0.003), duration (RS = -0.62, P = 0.006), and severity (RS = -0.54, P = 0.02). Temporal summation of pain was facilitated in patients with LBP compared with controls (standardized mean difference = 0.50 [0.29-0.72], P < 0.001), and the magnitude of this facilitation was weakly related to pain severity (RS= 0.41, P = 0.04) and appeared to be influenced by test modality (P < 0.001). Impaired CPM and facilitated TSP were present in patients with LBP compared with controls, although the magnitude of differences was small which may direct future research on the clinical utility.

The Effect of Stress on Repeated Painful Stimuli with and Without Painful Conditioning

OBJECTIVES

Stress and pain have been interrelated in clinical widespread pain conditions. Studies indicate that acute experimental stress in healthy volunteers has a negative effect on the descending inhibitory pain control system and thus the ability to inhibit one painful stimulus with another (conditioned pain modulation [CPM]) although without effect on general pain sensitivity. CPM effects can be assessed immediately after the stress induction, whereas some physiological stress responses (e.g., cortisol release) are delayed and longer lasting. It is unclear whether CPM may relate to stress-induced increases in cortisol.

DESIGN

Twenty-five healthy men had CPM effects measured over a period of 10 minutes. Pain detection thresholds (PDTs) were assessed by repeated test stimuli with cuff algometry on one leg, with and without painful cuff pressure conditioning on the contralateral leg. CPM effects, assessed as the increase in PDT during conditioning stimulation compared with without, were measured before and after experimental stress and a control condition (Montreal Imaging Stress Task [MIST]). Saliva cortisol levels and self-perceived stress were collected.

RESULTS

Participants reported the MIST to be more stressful compared with the MIST control, but cortisol levels did not change significantly from baseline. In all sessions, PDT increased during conditioning (P = 0.001), although the MIST compared with the MIST control had no significant effect on PDT or CPM effects. A negative correlation between changes in cortisol and conditioned PDT was found when applying the MIST (P < 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

No significant effect of stress was found on CPM compared with a matched control condition. Individual changes in experimental stress and in conditioned pain sensitivity may be linked with cortisol.

[Establishment of an adaptable acute pain model for induction of nociceptive stimuli of defined intensity and duration using thermal stimulation]

BACKGROUND

In previous years numerous acute pain models to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms of pain and to validate treatment procedures have been described. Due to the specific questions addressed by different trials standardized protocols are often missing. Therefore, the research results obtained are only comparable or reproducible to a limited extent. The transferability of acquired knowledge to clinical pain is limited by the mostly short test duration of already established models.

METHOD

The aim of this study was to establish a standardized protocol for an acute pain model that induces nociceptive thermal stimuli of defined intensity and variable duration using a device for quantitative sensory testing (QST). The greatest possible exclusion of factors influencing pain perception was achieved. In order to reduce the risk of thermal tissue damage a capsaicin cream was applied to the test area, which led to a significant increase in the perceived pain intensity of heat stimuli.

RESULTS

From previously performed experiments on thermal pain thresholds and temporal aspects of pain adaptation, the parameters for stimulus lengths and thermode temperatures for a cold and heat pain model could be derived. The acute pain model established here was able to induce significant heat and cold pain stimuli over variable periods of time. An average pain intensity of NRS ≥ 6 was reported by the test participants. Among the 30 subjects no tests were terminated due to intolerance.

CONCLUSION

The established acute pain model in this study is characterized by the induction of thermal pain stimuli of defined intensity and variable duration. There is no danger of significant thermal tissue damage and the pain was tolerated by all study participants. The pain model can easily be established using a device for quantitative sensory testing.

Effect of circadian rhythm on the pain associated with preventive onabotulinumtoxinA injections for migraines

The aim of our research was to assess if the pain and discomfort following each quarterly onabotulinumtoxinA (BTA) injection given to prevent daily headaches/migraines is circadian time-dependent so as to determine the best administration time for least discomfort and minimal follow-up pain. A total of 61 diurnally active patients with a medical history of chronic migraine headaches and undergoing preventative BTA injection therapy for the first time were enrolled in the study. Patients were randomly assigned to morning or afternoon clinics, but had the ability to choose within the assigned clinic the injection time that best fits their schedule. 155 units of BTA was administered by following the standardized PREEMPT injection protocol. Patients reported the typical time of sleep onset and wakeup time for the week prior to injections. Patients then self-reported three levels of pain in the head and neck area: prior to BTA injections, immediately after, and 24 h after BTA injections. This was carried out by marking the pain level on 100 mm visual analog pain scale. Descriptive summaries were frequencies and percentages for categorical data and medians and quartiles for continuous variables. Demographic variables of gender, race, and age were tested using Chi-Square. Groups of morning versus afternoon patients were compared using the non-parametric Wilcoxson's Rank Sum Tests and student T tests. All analysis was done in SAS for Windows Version 9.4. 38 (62%) patients were injected during morning clinic and 23 (38%) during afternoon clinic. There was no difference in gender, race, and age variables between morning and afternoon patients. 67% of the patients experienced increased pain following the initial injection. Higher pain score was more frequent following morning than afternoon injections (78% vs. 50%, p = .021). The 24 h post-injection pain level was also significantly higher in patients injected in the morning than afternoon (64% vs. 28%, p = .024). Performing BTA injections for migraine prevention during the morning was associated with significantly more treatment-related discomfort, both immediately and 24 h after injection. Scheduling diurnal active patients with stable circadian sleep/wake routine for afternoon BTA injections appears beneficial for decreasing treatment-related discomfort and potentially increase compliance to therapy.

Age and Gender as Factors of Pressure Sensitivity of Pain-Free Persons: Are They Meaningful?

Purpose

Prior findings suggest that women and elderly persons are more sensitive to pressure than men and younger persons; however, the magnitudes of these differences are substantially inconsistent. We answered the question whether the higher sensitivity of women and elderly persons is quantitatively meaningful. Specifically, we investigated if it is large enough to hamper the diagnosis, classification and follow-up of pain conditions by clinicians.

Materials and Methods

From each age stratum (18–20, 21–30, 31–40, 41–50, 51–60, 61–70, 71–80, and >80 years), 40 pain-free women and 40 pain-free men were recruited. They rated the intensity of pressure of ten Newtons over ten seconds on an analogue zero to ten rating scale. The pressure was applied on their middle fingers and ear lobes with a threshold algometer. Centile curves visualized the sex- and age-dependent fluctuation of pressure sensitivity.

Results

Over the entire age range from 20 to 80 years, the median curves fluctuated within the interval of less than two points. The distance between the median curves of men and women was also less than two points. On the average, the median difference was half a point on the finger (p = 0.249) and the ear lobe (p = 0.083).

Conclusion

Less than two points is below the minimal clinically important difference for a zero to ten analogue pain rating scale; differences smaller than one point are even below the resolution of the scale. Sex differences and age fluctuations of pressure sensitivity are negligible.

Melatonin and morphine: potential beneficial effects of co-use

Morphine is a potent analgesic agent used to control acute or chronic pain. Chronic administration of morphine results in analgesic tolerance, hyperalgesia, and other side effects including dependence, addiction, respiratory depression, and constipation, which limit its clinical usage. Therefore, identifying the new analgesics with fewer side effects which could increase the effect of morphine and reduce its side effects is crucial. Melatonin, a multifunctional molecule produced in the body, is known to play an important role in pain regulation. The strong anti-inflammatory effect of melatonin is suggested to be involved in the attenuation of the pain associated with inflammation. Melatonin also increases the anti-nociceptive actions of opioids, such as morphine, and reverses their tolerance through regulating several cellular signaling pathways. In this review, published articles evaluating the effect of the co-consumption of melatonin and morphine in different conditions were investigated. Our results show that melatonin has pain-killing properties when administered alone or in combination with other anti-nociceptive drugs. Melatonin decreases morphine consumption in different pathologies. Furthermore, attenuation of morphine intake can be accompanied by reduction of morphine-associated side-effects, including physical dependence, morphine tolerance, and morphine-related hyperalgesia. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that the combination of melatonin with morphine could reduce morphine-induced tolerance and hyperalgesia, which may result from anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of melatonin. Overall, we underscore that, to further ameliorate patients' life quality and control their pain in various pathological conditions, melatonin deserves to be used with morphine by anesthesiologists in clinical practice.

The effects of recovery sleep on pain perception: A systematic review

Experimental studies highlight profound effects of sleep disruptions on pain, showing that sleep deprivation (SD) leads to hyperalgesic pain changes. On the other hand, given that sleep helps normalizing bodily functions, a crucial role of restorative sleep in the overnight restoration of the pain system seems likely. Thus, a systematic review of experimental studies on effects of recovery sleep (RS; subsequently to SD) on pain was performed with the aim to check whether RS resets hyperalgesic pain changes occurring due to SD. Empirical animal and human studies including SD-paradigms, RS and pain assessments were searched in three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO) using a predefined algorithm. 29 studies were included in this review. Most results indicated a reset of enhanced pain sensitivity and vulnerability following RS, especially when total SD was implemented and pressure pain or painful symptoms (human studies) were assessed. Further research should focus on whether and how recovery is altered in chronic pain patients, as this yields implications for pain treatment by enhancing or stabilizing RS.

Sleep, Experimental Pain and Clinical Pain in Patients with Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain and Healthy Controls

Purpose

Everyday variations in night sleep in healthy pain-free subjects are at most weakly associated with pain, whereas strong alterations (eg, sleep deprivation, insomnia) lead to hyperalgesic pain changes. Since it remains unclear how substantial sleep alterations need to be in order to affect the pain system and lead to a coupling of both functions, the present study aimed at providing sufficient variance for co-variance analyses by examining a sample consisting of both healthy subjects and chronic pain patients.

Methods

A sample of 20 chronic musculoskeletal pain patients and 20 healthy controls was examined. This sample was assumed to show high inter-individual variability in sleep and pain, as pain patients frequently report sleep disturbances, whereas healthy subjects were required to be pain-free and normal sleepers. Sleep of two non-consecutive nights was measured using portable polysomnography and questionnaires. Experimental pain parameters (pressure pain thresholds (PPT), temporal summation of pain (TSP), conditioned pain modulation (CPM)) and situational pain catastrophizing (SCQ) were assessed in laboratory sessions before and after sleep. Pain patients’ clinical pain was assessed via questionnaire.

Results

As expected, both groups differed in several sleep parameters (reduced total sleep time and sleep efficiency, more time awake after sleep onset, lower subjective sleep quality in the patients) and in a few pain parameters (lower PPTs in the patients). In contrast, no differences were found in TSP, CPM, and SCQ. Contrary to our expectations, regression analyses indicated no prediction of overnight pain changes by sleep parameters.

Conclusion

Since sleep parameters were hardly apt to predict overnight pain changes, this leaves the association of both systems mainly unproven when using between-subject variance for verification.

Psychophysical or spinal reflex measures when assessing conditioned pain modulation?

BACKGROUND

Assessing conditioning pain modulation (CPM) with spinal reflex measures may produce more objective and stable CPM effects than using psychophysical measures. The aim of the study was to compare the CPM effect and test-retest reliability between a psychophysical protocol with thermal test-stimulus and a spinal reflex protocol with electrical test-stimulus.

METHODS

Twenty-five healthy volunteers participated in two identical experiments separated by minimum 1 week. The thermal test-stimulus was a constant heat stimulation of 120 s on the subjects' forearm with continuous ratings of pain intensity on a 10 cm visual analogue scale. The electrical test-stimulus was repeated electrical stimulation on the arch of the foot for 120 s, which elicited a nociceptive withdrawal reflex recorded from the anterior tibial muscle. Conditioning stimulus was a 7°C water bath. Differences in the magnitude and test-retest reliability were investigated with repeated-measures analysis of variance and by relative and absolute reliability indices.

RESULTS

The CPM effect was -46% and 4.5% during the thermal and electrical test-stimulus (p < 0.001) respectively. Intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.5 and 0.4 was found with the electrical and thermal test-stimulus respectively. Wide limits of agreement were found for both the electrical (-3.4 to 3.8 mA) and the thermal test-stimulus (-3.2 to 3.6 cm).

CONCLUSIONS

More pronounced CPM effect was demonstrated when using a psychophysical protocol with thermal test-stimulus compared to a spinal reflex protocol with electrical test-stimulus. Fair relative reliability and poor absolute reliability (due to high intraindividual variability) was found in both protocols.

SIGNIFICANCE

The large difference in CPM effect between the two protocols suggests that the CPM effect relates to pain perception rather than nociception on the spinal level. Due to poor absolute intrarater reliability, we recommend caution and further research before using any of the investigated CPM protocols in clinical decision making on an individual level.

Effects of Sleep Fragmentation and Induced Mood on Pain Tolerance and Pain Sensitivity in Young Healthy Adults

Background: Experimental research exploring the sleep/pain-relationship has typically focused on total or partial sleep deprivation, hereby failing to reproduce the mere fragmented sleep pattern typically observed in patients with chronic pain. Further, little research is done on how affect moderates the sleep–pain relationship after sleep fragmentation. The present study sought to clarify the relationship between pain, sleep and positive and negative affect.

Methods: In an experimental counterbalanced crossover design, 35 healthy young adults were subjected to several pain measures after one night of fragmented sleep, compared to one control night of normal sleep, both conducted in their own homes, and respectively, positive and negative affect induction using validated film clips and facial feedback procedures. Sleep was monitored using sleep diaries.

Results: Increased pain sensitivity after one night of experimentally induced sleep fragmentation was found, compared to after one control night of undisturbed sleep. No main effects of induced affect on pain were found, and sleep x induced affect interaction was not significant.

Conclusion: The present study supports the adverse effect of sleep fragmentation on pain sensitivity, however, affect was not found to be a moderator in the sleep–pain relationship. The results underline the need for further research within this field.

Effects of nicotine deprivation on current pain intensity among daily cigarette smokers

Animal research has consistently demonstrated increased pain in the context of nicotine deprivation, and there is cross-sectional evidence that tobacco smokers may experience greater pain following periods of smoking abstinence. This study aimed to examine current pain intensity as a function of nicotine deprivation among 137 daily tobacco smokers who did not endorse chronic pain and were recruited to participate in a primary study of the effects of smoking abstinence on experimental pain reactivity. Participants were randomized to either deprivation (12-24 hr abstinence) or continued ad lib smoking conditions. Compliance with the manipulation was biochemically verified via expired carbon monoxide (CO). Current pain intensity was assessed at baseline (Session 1) and following the deprivation manipulation (Session 2) using a single item that asked participants to indicate their current level of pain on a scale ranging from 0 (no pain) to 10 (pain as bad as you can imagine). At baseline, the majority of participants (51.1%) reported no pain (M = 1.75). As hypothesized, participants randomized to nicotine deprivation (vs. continued smoking) reported greater current pain intensity following the manipulation. Among smokers who reported no pain at baseline, those who abstained from smoking were nearly 3.5 times more likely to endorse pain at Session 2. These results suggest that daily tobacco smokers may experience greater pain during the first 12-24 hr of smoking abstinence. Future research should examine the role of pain in nicotine withdrawal, and whether tailored interventions may be needed to account for nicotine deprivation-induced amplification of pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Exogenous melatonin in the treatment of pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Melatonin is an important hormone for regulating mammalian circadian biology and cellular homeostasis. Recent evidence has shown that melatonin exerts anti-nociception effects in both animals and humans. However, according to clinical trials, the anti-nociception effects of melatonin are still controversial. The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate the anti-nociception effects of melatonin premedication. The primary outcome was the effects of melatonin on pain intensity. The secondary outcomes included the number of patients with analgesic requirements, total analgesic consumption, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. In total, 19 studies were included in the current meta-analysis. The pooling data show that melatonin significantly decreased the pain intensity, as evidenced by the pain scores. Moreover, melatonin administration also reduced the proportion of patients with analgesic requirements and BDNF levels. However, the effects of melatonin on total analgesic consumption still require further confirmation. Collectively, the current meta-analysis supports the use of melatonin for anti-nociception.

Comparing test-retest reliability and magnitude of conditioned pain modulation using different combinations of test and conditioning stimuli

This study aimed to compare the reliability and magnitude of conditioned pain modulation (CPM) by applying different test stimuli (TS) and conditioning stimuli (CS). Twenty-six healthy male participants were recruited in the study of two identical sessions. In each session, four TS (electrical, heat, handheld, and cuff pressure algometry) were applied before and during CS (cold pressor test (CPT) or cuff algometry). The same procedure was repeated with 45-min intervals, but with the other CS. Five thresholds were measured including four pain detection thresholds from four TS and pain tolerance threshold from cuff TS (cuff PTT). Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC (3,1)) and coefficient of variation (CV) were calculated as measures of reliability. The reliability of TS before and during CS was good for all combinations (ICC: 0.60-0.96, CV: 2.2-22.9%), but the reliability of the CPM effect varied (ICC: 0.04-0.53, CV: 63.6-503.9%). The most reliable combinations were considered to be the handheld pressure pain threshold with CPT (ICC: 0.49, CV: 63.6%) and the cuff pressure pain threshold with CPT (ICC: 0.44, CV: 107.6%). Significant CPM effects were found for all combinations, except the combinations of electrical and heat pain thresholds with cuff CS, which indicates the novel classification of the CPM mechanism. The combinations of handheld pressure and heat pain threshold with CPT would provide the minimum sample size to detect the significant CPM changes in further studies. It is beneficial to provide and compare both ICC and CV to design further clinical trials.

An Examination of Pain Catastrophizing and Endogenous Pain Modulatory Processes in Adults with Chronic Low Back Pain

OBJECTIVE

Research on chronic low back pain (cLBP) has focused heavily on structural abnormalities with emphasis on diagnostic imaging. However, for many cLBP patients, clinical pain and disability are not clearly associated with identifiable pathology of the spine or associated tissues. Therefore, alternative determinants such as psychological factors and dysfunctional pain modulatory processes have been suggested to be important.

METHODS

This observational study examined differences in pain catastrophizing and endogenous pain modulation between 25 cLBP patients and 25 pain-free controls. Associations among pain catastrophizing, endogenous pain modulatory processes, clinical pain reports, and disability were also examined in cLBP patients. Endogenous pain modulation was examined using temporal summation (TS) of mechanical and heat pain stimuli as well as conditioned pain modulation (CPM) with algometry (test stimulus) and the cold pressor task (conditioning stimulus).

RESULTS

Findings demonstrated significantly greater pain catastrophizing as well as greater TS of mechanical and heat pain for cLBP patients compared with controls. CPM was not present in cLBP patients or controls. Among cLBP patients, pain catastrophizing was significantly associated with disability, while TS of mechanical pain was significantly associated with clinical pain severity and disability.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that endogenous pain modulatory processes are altered for cLBP patients, particularly TS of mechanical and heat stimuli. Pain catastrophizing and TS of mechanical pain may have important clinical relevance for cLBP, given associations with clinical pain and disability; however, future research is needed to replicate these findings.