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Bilateral Improvements Following Unilateral Home-Based Training in Plantar Flexors: A Potential for Cross-Education in Rehabilitation. J Sport Rehabil 2023; 32:14-23. [PMID: 35894916 DOI: 10.1123/jsr.2021-0383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Cross-education (CE) refers to neuromuscular gains in the untrained limb upon contralateral limb training. To date, only laboratory-based exercise programs have demonstrated CE. Home-based exercise prescription eliciting CE could have greater clinical applicability. OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of an 8-week, home-based unilateral strength training intervention on isokinetic muscle strength, muscular excitation, and power in trained and untrained plantar flexors. DESIGN Randomized controlled trial. METHODS Thirty-four healthy participants were randomized to intervention (n = 20) or control (n = 14). The intervention group completed 3 sets of 12 repetitions of progressively loaded unilateral calf raises 3 days per week. Concentric and eccentric peak torque were measured using isokinetic dynamometry at 30°/s and 120°/s. Maximal electromyogram amplitude was simultaneously measured. Power was measured using a jump mat. All variables were measured at preintervention, midintervention, and postintervention. RESULTS Strength significantly increased bilaterally pre-post at both velocities concentrically and eccentrically in intervention group participants. Maximal electromyogram amplitude significantly increased pre-post bilaterally at both velocities in the medial gastrocnemii of the intervention group. Power significantly increased bilaterally pre-post in the intervention group, with a dose-response effect demonstrated in the untrained plantar flexors. The CE effects of strength, power, and electromyogram activation were 23.4%, 14.6%, and 25.3%, respectively. All control group values were unchanged pre-post. CONCLUSION This study shows that a simple at-home unilateral plantar flexor exercise protocol induces significant increases in contralateral strength, muscular excitation, and power. These results suggest the applicability of CE in home rehabilitation programs aiming to restore or maintain neuromuscular function in inactive individuals or immobilized ankles.
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The Efficacy of Upper-Extremity Elastic Resistance Training on Shoulder Strength and Performance: A Systematic Review. Sports (Basel) 2022; 10:sports10020024. [PMID: 35202063 PMCID: PMC8879764 DOI: 10.3390/sports10020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Elastic resistance exercise is a popular mode of strength training that has demonstrated positive effects on whole-body strength and performance. The purpose of this work was to identify the efficacy of elastic resistance training on improving upper limb strength and performance measures for the shoulder. Seven online databases were searched with a focus on longitudinal studies assessing shoulder elastic training strength interventions. In total, 1367 studies were initially screened for relevancy; 24 full-text articles were included for review. Exercise interventions ranged from 4-12 weeks, assessing pre-/post-strength and performance measures inclusive of isometric and isokinetic strength, 1RM strength, force-velocity tests, and throwing-velocity tests. Significant increases in various isometric strength measures (IR:11–13%, ER:11–42%, FL: 14–36%, EXT: 4–17%, ABD: 8–16%), 1RM strength (~24% in bench press), force-velocities, throwing- and serve-velocities (12%) were all observed. Elastic resistance training elicited positive effects for both strength and performance parameters regardless of intervention duration. Similar significant increases were observed in isometric strength and 1RM strength across durations. Isokinetic strength increases were variable and dependent on the joint velocity conditions. Quantifying the dosage of appropriate exercise prescription for optimal strength and performance gains is inconclusive with this study due to the heterogeneity of the intervention protocols.
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Evaluation of Shoulder and Knee Isokinetic Strength Profile Among Elite Adolescent Badminton Players. J Sport Rehabil 2021; 30:717-724. [PMID: 33465761 DOI: 10.1123/jsr.2019-0483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Badminton continues to be a highly competitive sport where training is introduced at an early age and load has intensified. This exposes players to a greater risk of injuries, in particular when assessing related training outcomes such as strength, agonist-antagonist ratio, and bilateral deficit among adolescents where age- and sex-associated growth and development should be considered. OBJECTIVE To evaluate strength profile of the upper and lower limbs among adolescent elite Malaysian badminton players. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Laboratory. PARTICIPANTS Forty-eight asymptomatic athletes (24 males and 24 females) were grouped into early and late adolescence (13-14 y old and 15-17 y old, respectively). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Strength (absolute and normalized) of the external/internal rotators of the shoulder and flexor/extensor of the knee and strength derivatives, conventional strength ratio (CSR), dynamic control ratio (DCR), and bilateral deficits were measured. RESULTS Males showed greater strength in all strength indices (P < .05). The older group had greater strength compared to younger for most of the upper and lower limb indices (P < .05); these effects diminished when using normalized data. For females, there was no age group effect in the shoulder and knee strength. All players displayed lower shoulder and knee normative values for CSR and DCR. Dominant and non-dominant knee strength were comparable between sex and age groups. CONCLUSIONS For males, growth and maturation had a greater contribution to strength gained compared to training, whereas for females, growth, maturation, and training did not improve strength. The normalized data indicated that training did not improve all indices measured apart from external rotator strength in females. All players also displayed lower normative values of CSR and DCR. These results suggest that training in elite adolescent Malaysian badminton players lacks consideration of strength gain and injury risk factors.
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Neltner TJ, Addie CD, Cosio-Lima LM, Dake CC, Brown LE. No effect of short term cross-education training on concentric contralateral shoulder strength. ISOKINET EXERC SCI 2019. [DOI: 10.3233/ies-192172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Green LA, Gabriel DA. The effect of unilateral training on contralateral limb strength in young, older, and patient populations: a meta-analysis of cross education. PHYSICAL THERAPY REVIEWS 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/10833196.2018.1499272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lara A. Green
- Department of Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
| | - David A. Gabriel
- Department of Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
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Skals S, Vinstrup J, Sundstrup E, Jakobsen MD, Andersen CH, Andersen LL. Shoulder and arm muscle activity during elastic band exercises performed in a hospital bed. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2018; 46:233-241. [PMID: 29451065 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2018.1441580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Muscle atrophy is a common side-effect of bed rest during hospitalization. However, resistance training may minimize or even prevent these complications. Therefore, we evaluated the efficiency of four upper-body elastic resistance exercises that could be performed while lying or sitting in a hospital bed. METHODS Twenty-two healthy subjects performed three repetitions of each exercise in a supine and seated position with a perceived intensity of 3 (low) and 8 (high) on the Borg CR10 Scale. Surface electromyography was collected from 12 shoulder and arm muscles (e.g. trapezius, deltoideus, and biceps brachii), and normalized to a maximal voluntary isometric contraction (nEMG). RESULTS During all exercises performed at high intensity, moderate (>40%) to high (>60%) levels of nEMG were found for the majority of the analysed muscles, e.g. deltoideus (from 37% to 69%, median 57.5%), trapezius (from 43% to 66%, median 51%), and infraspinatus (from 54% to 66%, median 59%), with the exception of pectoralis major (from 29% to 47%, median 39.5%) and latissimus dorsi (from 15% to 22%, median 18.5%). No significant differences were found between the supine and seated positions for any of the exercises. CONCLUSION This study showed that high levels of shoulder and arm muscle activity can be achieved while lying or sitting in a hospital bed using appropriate exercises with elastic bands. The data presented here can be used by physiotherapists as a guideline for selecting suitable and effective strengthening exercises during in-hospital rehabilitation to counteract bed-rest related muscle atrophy in the upper body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Skals
- a Musculoskeletal Disorders , National Research Centre for the Working Environment , Copenhagen , Denmark.,b Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology , Aalborg University , Aalborg , Denmark
| | - Jonas Vinstrup
- a Musculoskeletal Disorders , National Research Centre for the Working Environment , Copenhagen , Denmark.,b Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology , Aalborg University , Aalborg , Denmark
| | - Emil Sundstrup
- a Musculoskeletal Disorders , National Research Centre for the Working Environment , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Markus D Jakobsen
- a Musculoskeletal Disorders , National Research Centre for the Working Environment , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Christoffer H Andersen
- c Department of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Health and Technology , Metropolitan University College , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Lars L Andersen
- a Musculoskeletal Disorders , National Research Centre for the Working Environment , Copenhagen , Denmark.,b Sport Sciences, Department of Health Science and Technology , Aalborg University , Aalborg , Denmark
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Mason J, Frazer AK, Horvath DM, Pearce AJ, Avela J, Howatson G, Kidgell DJ. Ipsilateral corticomotor responses are confined to the homologous muscle following cross-education of muscular strength. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 43:11-22. [PMID: 28829918 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2017-0457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cross-education of strength occurs when strength-training 1 limb increases the strength of the untrained limb and is restricted to the untrained homologous muscle. Cortical circuits located ipsilateral to the trained limb might be involved. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to determine the corticomotor responses from the untrained homologous (biceps brachii) and nonhomologous (flexor carpi radialis) muscle following strength-training of the right elbow flexors. Motor evoked potentials were recorded from the untrained left biceps brachii and flexor carpi radialis during a submaximal contraction from 20 individuals (10 women, 10 men; aged 18-35 years; training group, n = 10; control group, n = 10) before and after 3 weeks of strength-training the right biceps brachii at 80% of 1-repetition maximum. Recruitment-curves for corticomotor excitability and inhibition of the untrained homologous and nonhomologous muscle were constructed and assessed by examining the area under the recruitment curve. Strength-training increased strength of the trained elbow flexors (29%), resulting in an 18% increase in contralateral strength of the untrained elbow flexors (P < 0.0001). The trained wrist flexors increased by 19%, resulting in a 12% increase in strength of the untrained wrist flexors (P = 0.005). TMS showed increased corticomotor excitability and decreased corticomotor inhibition for the untrained homologous muscle (P < 0.05); however, there were no changes in the untrained nonhomologous muscle (P > 0.05). These findings show that the cross-education of muscular strength is spatially distributed; however, the neural adaptations are confined to the motor pathway ipsilateral to the untrained homologous agonist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Mason
- a Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne 3155, Australia
| | - Ashlyn K Frazer
- a Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne 3155, Australia
| | - Deanna M Horvath
- b Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
| | - Alan J Pearce
- c Discipline of Sport & Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
| | - Janne Avela
- d Department of Biology and Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
| | - Glyn Howatson
- e Department of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle NE1 8ST, UK.,f Water Research Group, School of Environmental Sciences and Development, Northwest University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- a Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne 3155, Australia
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Hendy AM, Lamon S. The Cross-Education Phenomenon: Brain and Beyond. Front Physiol 2017; 8:297. [PMID: 28539892 PMCID: PMC5423908 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Unilateral resistance training produces strength gains in the untrained homologous muscle group, an effect termed “cross-education.” The observed strength transfer has traditionally been considered a phenomenon of the nervous system, with few studies examining the contribution of factors beyond the brain and spinal cord. In this hypothesis and theory article, we aim to discuss further evidence for structural and functional adaptations occurring within the nervous, muscle, and endocrine systems in response to unilateral resistance training. The limitations of existing cross-education studies will be explored, and novel potential stakeholders that may contribute to the cross-education effect will be identified. Design: Critical review of the literature. Method: Search of online databases. Results: Studies have provided evidence that functional reorganization of the motor cortex facilitates, at least in part, the effects of cross-education. Cross-activation of the “untrained” motor cortex, ipsilateral to the trained limb, plays an important role. While many studies report little or no gains in muscle mass in the untrained limb, most experimental designs have not allowed for sensitive or comprehensive investigation of structural changes in the muscle. Conclusions: Increased neural drive originating from the “untrained” motor cortex contributes to the cross-education effect. Adaptive changes within the muscle fiber, as well as systemic and hormonal factors require further investigation. An increased understanding of the physiological mechanisms contributing to cross-education will enable to more effectively explore its effects and potential applications in rehabilitation of unilateral movement disorders or injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlee M Hendy
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin UniversityGeelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Séverine Lamon
- School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin UniversityGeelong, VIC, Australia
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Frazer AK, Williams J, Spittle M, Kidgell DJ. Cross-education of muscular strength is facilitated by homeostatic plasticity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:665-677. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3538-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Johansson FR, Skillgate E, Lapauw ML, Clijmans D, Deneulin VP, Palmans T, Engineer HK, Cools AM. Measuring Eccentric Strength of the Shoulder External Rotators Using a Handheld Dynamometer: Reliability and Validity. J Athl Train 2015; 50:719-25. [PMID: 25974381 DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-49.3.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Shoulder strength assessment plays an important role in the clinical examination of the shoulder region. Eccentric strength measurements are of special importance in guiding the clinician in injury prevention or return-to-play decisions after injury. OBJECTIVE To examine the absolute and relative reliability and validity of a standardized eccentric strength-measurement protocol for the glenohumeral external rotators. DESIGN Descriptive laboratory study. SETTING Testing environment at the Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy of Ghent University, Belgium. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS Twenty-five healthy participants (9 men and 16 women) without any history of shoulder pain were tested by 2 independent assessors using a handheld dynamometer (HHD) and underwent an isokinetic testing procedure. INTERVENTION(S) The clinical protocol used an HHD, a DynaPort accelerometer to measure acceleration and angular velocity of testing 30°/s over 90° of range of motion, and a Biodex dynamometer to measure isokinetic activity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Three eccentric strength measurements: (1) tester 1 with the HHD, (2) tester 2 with the HHD, and (3) Biodex isokinetic strength measurement. RESULTS The intratester reliability was excellent (0.879 and 0.858), whereas the intertester reliability was good, with an intraclass correlation coefficient between testers of 0.714. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients of 0.78 and 0.70 were noted between the HHD and the isokinetic data, showing good validity of this new procedure. CONCLUSIONS Standardized eccentric rotator cuff strength can be tested and measured in the clinical setting with good-to-excellent reliability and validity using an HHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik R Johansson
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Belgium;,Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden;,Scandinavian College of Naprapathic Manual Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Eva Skillgate
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden;,Scandinavian College of Naprapathic Manual Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mattis L Lapauw
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Belgium
| | - Dorien Clijmans
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Belgium
| | - Valentijn P Deneulin
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Belgium
| | | | - Human Kinetic Engineer
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Belgium
| | - Ann M Cools
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Belgium
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