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Baum BS, Man C. Race and geography impact validity of maximum allowable standing height equations for para-athletes. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6551. [PMID: 38504109 PMCID: PMC10951375 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56597-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
World Athletics use maximum allowable standing height (MASH) equations for para-athletes with bilateral lower extremity amputations to estimate stature and limit prosthesis length since longer prostheses can provide running performance advantages. The equations were developed using a white Spanish population; however, validation for other races and geographical groups is limited. This study aimed to determine the validity of the MASH equations for Black and white Americans and whether bias errors between calculated and measured stature were similar between these populations. Sitting height, thigh length, upper arm length, forearm length, and arm span of 1899 male and 1127 female Black and white Americans from the Anthropometric Survey of US Army Personnel database were input into the 6 sex-specific MASH equations to enable comparisons of calculated and measured statures within and between Black and white groups. Two of 12 MASH equations validly calculated stature for Black Americans and 3 of 12 equations were valid for white Americans. Bias errors indicated greater underestimation or lesser overestimation of calculated statures in 10 equations for Black compared to white Americans and in 2 equations for white compared to Black Americans. This study illustrates that race and geography impact the validity of MASH equations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S Baum
- , Cambridge, USA.
- MIT Lincoln Laboratory, 244 Wood Street, Lexington, MA, 02421, USA.
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Zhang-Lea JH, Tacca JR, Beck ON, Taboga P, Grabowski AM. Equivalent running leg lengths require prosthetic legs to be longer than biological legs during standing. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7679. [PMID: 37169823 PMCID: PMC10175537 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34346-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to determine a method for prescribing a standing prosthetic leg length (ProsL) that results in an equivalent running biological leg length (BioL) for athletes with unilateral (UTTA) and bilateral transtibial amputations (BTTA). We measured standing leg length of ten non-amputee (NA) athletes, ten athletes with UTTA, and five athletes with BTTA. All athletes performed treadmill running trials from 3 m/s to their maximum speed. We calculated standing and running BioL and ProsL lengths and assessed the running-to-standing leg length ratio (Lratio) at three instances during ground contact: touchdown, mid-stance, and take-off. Athletes with UTTA had 2.4 cm longer standing ProsL than BioL length (p = 0.030), but their ProsL length were up to 3.3 cm shorter at touchdown and 4.1 cm shorter at mid-stance than BioL, at speed 3-11.5 m/s. At touchdown, mid-stance, and take-off, athletes with BTTA had 0.01-0.05 lower Lratio at 3 m/s (p < 0.001) and 0.03-0.07 lower Lratio at 10 m/s (p < 0.001) in their ProsL compared to the BioL of NA athletes. During running, ProsL were consistently shorter than BioL. To achieve equivalent running leg lengths at touchdown and take-off, athletes with UTTA should set their running-specific prosthesis height so that their standing ProsL length is 2.8-4.5% longer than their BioL length, and athletes with BTTA should set their running-specific prosthesis height so that their standing ProsL lengths are at least 2.1-3.9% longer than their presumed BioL length. Setting ProsL length to match presumed biological dimensions during standing results in shorter legs during running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet H Zhang-Lea
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA.
- Department of Human Physiology, Gonzaga University, Spokane, USA.
| | - Joshua R Tacca
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Owen N Beck
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Paolo Taboga
- Department of Kinesiology, Sacramento State University, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Alena M Grabowski
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Denver, CO, USA
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Weyand PG, Brooks LC, Prajapati S, McClelland EL, Hatcher SK, Callier QM, Bundle MW. Artificially long legs directly enhance long sprint running performance. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220397. [PMID: 35991333 PMCID: PMC9382221 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This comment addresses the incomplete presentation and incorrect conclusion offered in the recent manuscript of Beck et al. (R. Soc. Open Sci. 9, 211799 (doi:10.1098/rsos.211799)). The manuscript introduces biomechanical and performance data on the fastest-ever, bilateral amputee 400 m runner. Using an advantage standard of not faster than the fastest non-amputee runner ever (i.e. performance superior to that of the intact-limb world record-holder), the Beck et al. manuscript concludes that sprint running performance on bilateral, lower-limb prostheses is not unequivocally advantageous compared to the biological limb condition. The manuscript acknowledges the long-standing support of the authors for the numerous eligibility applications of the bilateral-amputee athlete. However, it does not acknowledge that the athlete's anatomically disproportionate prosthetic limb lengths (+15 cm versus the World Para Athletics maximum) are ineligible in both Olympic and Paralympic track competition due to their performance-enhancing properties. Also not acknowledged are the slower sprint performances of the bilateral-amputee athlete on limbs of shorter length that directly refute their manuscript's primary conclusion. Our contribution here provides essential background information and data not included in the Beck et al. manuscript that make the correct empirical conclusion clear: artificially long legs artificially enhance long sprint running performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G. Weyand
- Locomotor Performance Laboratory, Department of Applied Physiology and Wellness, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Lance C. Brooks
- Locomotor Performance Laboratory, Department of Applied Physiology and Wellness, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Sunil Prajapati
- Locomotor Performance Laboratory, Department of Applied Physiology and Wellness, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Emily L. McClelland
- Locomotor Performance Laboratory, Department of Applied Physiology and Wellness, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - S. K. Hatcher
- Locomotor Performance Laboratory, Department of Applied Physiology and Wellness, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Quinn M. Callier
- Locomotor Performance Laboratory, Department of Applied Physiology and Wellness, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Matthew W. Bundle
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Integrative Physiology and Athletic Training, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
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McNamee M, Parnell R, Vanlandewijck Y. "Fairness, Technology and the Ethics of Paralympic Sport Classification". Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 21:1510-1517. [PMID: 34304697 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1961022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Fairness in sport is a widely shared meritocratic norm. Its application is usually restricted to equality of opportunity to compete for victory. Paralympic sports lay down a further challenge in that equality of opportunity must be shaped by considerations of fairness, evidenced by the development of discrete competition categories to construct fair and meaningful contests. In this article we extend these philosophical ideas to consider how Fair Equality of Opportunity might operate in the context of Paralympic sports classification. We articulate three conceptions of fairness relevant to these sports: (i) background fairness; (ii) procedural fairness; and (iii) stakes fairness. We critically review the International Paralympic Committee's Policy on Sport Equipment in relation to the first two conceptions and argue that greater clarification, theorization and rule modification is required if physical prowess, as opposed to equipment technology, is to be assured as the dominant determinant of Paralympic athletic success.Bullet points: Fair equality of opportunity in sport is applied to disability or Paralympic sportConceptual and ethical review of IPC sport equipment policyGreater theorization and rule modification required to preserve the principle that physical prowess as opposed to equipment technology is the dominant determinat of athletic success.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yves Vanlandewijck
- KU Leuven, Belgium; Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden
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Cavedon V, Zancanaro C, Milanese C. Anthropometry, Body Composition, and Performance in Sport-Specific Field Test in Female Wheelchair Basketball Players. Front Physiol 2018; 9:568. [PMID: 29899703 PMCID: PMC5989316 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Data on the physical and performance characteristics of female wheelchair basketball (WB) players are scarce. In several countries female WB players train and compete with male players on mixed teams due to the limited total population of players, which would otherwise lead to large territorial spread for each team. Any differences in terms of physical characteristics and/or WB skill proficiency between male and female WB players would be relevant to team performance in mixed teams. This work examined anthropometry, body composition, and performance in a set of sport-specific field tests in a sample of 13 female WB players representing about 40% of the eligible population in Italy across a range of functional point scores (Point). Point is assigned on an ordinal scale from 1.0 (i.e., players with minimal functional potential) through to 4.5 (players with maximum functional potential). Our female sample was then compared against twice as many (n = 26) Point-matched (±0.5 points) male players. The two groups were similar for age (P = 0.191; effect size [d] = 0.2), self-reported duration of injury (P = 0.144, d = 0.6), WB experience (P = 0.178, d = 0.5), and volume of training (P = 0.293, d = 0.4). The large majority of measured linear anthropometric variables (10/13) were lower in female players than males (0.001 < P ≤ 0.041). Skinfold-estimated percent body fat was higher (+7.6%) in females (30.7 ± 6.0%; P < 0.001, d = 1.3). Mean performance was worse in female than in males in six out of seven sport-specific field tests, scores being significantly lower in females for the maximal pass (7.5 ± 2.0 m for females vs. 10.4 ± 2.8 m for males; P = 0.002, d = 1.2) and suicide tests (55.8 ± 6.4 s for females vs. 45.4 ± 6.7 s for males; P < 0.001, d = 1.6). When performance in subgroups of females (n = 9) chosen across a range of Point was compared with that of males assigned 1.0 or 1.5 Point less (each n = 9), performance differences between male and female WB players were partially and completely eliminated, respectively. This work contributed new data for characterizing the physique and performance of female WB players. Further, the results suggested that when male and female athletes compete together in mixed teams, a 1.5 points subtraction from female players is needed to match the real gender difference in performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Cavedon
- Laboratory of Anthropometry and Body Composition, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Carlo Zancanaro
- Laboratory of Anthropometry and Body Composition, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Chiara Milanese
- Laboratory of Anthropometry and Body Composition, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Hobara H, Potthast W, Müller R, Kobayashi Y, Hashizume S, Herdoorn TA, Mochimaru M. Relationship between body height and spatiotemporal parameters during a 100-m sprint in able-bodied and unilateral transtibial sprinters. Prosthet Orthot Int 2017; 41:492-497. [PMID: 28094681 DOI: 10.1177/0309364616684164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although anthropometric factors could influence sprint performance in able-bodied sprinters, little is known about the relationships between these anthropometric factors and sprint performance in amputee sprinters. OBJECTIVES To investigate the relationships between body height and spatiotemporal parameters of 100-m sprints in unilateral transtibial amputee and able-bodied sprinters. STUDY DESIGN This is a cross-sectional study. METHODS We analyzed elite-level 100-m races of 14 male unilateral transtibial amputee sprinters and 22 male able-bodied sprinters from publicly available Internet broadcasts. For each sprinter's run, the mean step length and frequency were determined using the number of steps in conjunction with the official race time. Furthermore, body height data for sprinters in both groups were obtained from publicly available resources. RESULTS Linear relationships were found between body height and mean step length and frequency in able-bodied sprinters, respectively. However, there were no significant relationships between body height and spatiotemporal parameters in transtibial amputee sprinters. CONCLUSION The results of this study suggest that the relationship between body height and spatiotemporal parameters during a 100-m sprint is not the same between unilateral transtibial amputees and able-bodied sprinters. Clinical relevance Understanding of the relationship between body height and spatiotemporal parameters during a 100-m sprint would provide important information that could be utilized for evaluating prosthetic sprint performance and coaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Hobara
- 1 National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Ralf Müller
- 2 German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Yoshiyuki Kobayashi
- 1 National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoru Hashizume
- 3 Sangyo Gijutsu Sogo Kenkyujo Rinkaifukutoshin Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Thijs A Herdoorn
- 1 National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaaki Mochimaru
- 1 National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tokyo, Japan
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Performance-Focussed Sport – An Avenue to Gold-Medal Clinical Outcomes for People with Neurological Impairments? BRAIN IMPAIR 2016. [DOI: 10.1017/brimp.2016.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This paper investigates the premise that long-term engagement in performance-focussed sports training may lead to significantly enhanced clinical outcomes for people with neurological impairments (NI). The minimum volume of moderate-intensity activity recommended for good health is 450 MET.minutes/week, although evidence from the general population indicates that outcomes may be enhanced by completing up to five times this volume (2250 MET.minutes/week) at vigorous (rather than moderate) intensity. Most studies evaluating physical activity interventions for people with NI deliver low volumes (<450 MET.minutes/week), which may explain why evidence for some clinical outcomes is weak. Athletes (with or without NI) who aim to achieve high-level sports performance undertake an increasingly large volume of vigorous intensity physical activity over several seasons. Evidence that people with NI may enhance clinical outcomes through performance-focussed sports training includes: evidence from studies investigating the benefits of high-intensity and/or high volume clinical exercise; scientific evidence from elite/high-level athletes; and anecdotal evidence from Paralympic athlete testimonials. Additionally, sports participants with NI may also accrue an important array of psychosocial benefits, including higher rates of employment, and higher satisfaction with life and social integration. Rigorous, prospective, longitudinal clinical monitoring of people with NI undertaking performance-focussed sports training are required to evaluate its clinical utility.
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