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Manyenya S, Nthiwa D, Lutta HO, Muturi M, Nyamota R, Mwatondo A, Watene G, Akoko J, Bett B. Multiple pathogens co-exposure and associated risk factors among cattle reared in a wildlife-livestock interface area in Kenya. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1415423. [PMID: 39119353 PMCID: PMC11306132 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1415423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Understanding multi-pathogen infections/exposures in livestock is critical to inform prevention and control measures against infectious diseases. We investigated the co-exposure of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), Brucella spp., Leptospira spp., and Coxiella burnetii in cattle in three zones stratified by land use change and with different wildlife-livestock interactions in Narok county, Kenya. We also assessed potential risk factors associated with the transmission of these pathogens in cattle. Methods We identified five villages purposively, two each for areas with intensive (zone 1) and moderate wildlife-livestock interactions (zone 2) and one for locations with low wildlife-livestock interactions (zone 3). We sampled 1,170 cattle from 390 herds through a cross-sectional study and tested the serum samples for antibodies against the focal pathogens using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. A questionnaire was administered to gather epidemiological data on the putative risk factors associated with cattle's exposure to the investigated pathogens. Data were analyzed using the Bayesian hierarchical models with herd number as a random effect to adjust for the within-herd clustering of the various co-exposures among cattle. Results Overall, 88.0% (95% CI: 85.0-90.5) of the cattle tested positive for at least one of the targeted pathogens, while 41.7% (95% CI: 37.7-45.8) were seropositive to at least two pathogens. FMDV and Brucella spp. had the highest co-exposure at 33.7% (95% CI: 30.9-36.5), followed by FMDV and Leptospira spp. (21.8%, 95% CI: 19.5-24.4), Leptospira spp. and Brucella spp. (8.8%, 95% CI: 7.2-10.6), FMDV and C. burnetii (1.5%, 95% CI: 0.7-2.8), Brucella spp. and C. burnetii (1.0%, 95% CI: 0.3-2.2), and lowest for Leptospira spp. and C. burnetii (0.3%, 95% CI: 0.0-1.2). Cattle with FMDV and Brucella spp., and Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. co-exposures and those simultaneously exposed to FMDV, Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. were significantly higher in zone 1 than in zones 2 and 3. However, FMDV and Leptospira spp. co-exposure was higher in zones 1 and 2 than zone 3. Discussion/conclusion We recommend the establishment of a One Health surveillance system in the study area to reduce the morbidity of the targeted zoonotic pathogens in cattle and the risks of transmission to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophina Manyenya
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Embu, Embu, Kenya
| | - Daniel Nthiwa
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Embu, Embu, Kenya
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Harrison Osundwa Lutta
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kabete Centre, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mathew Muturi
- Kenya Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Athman Mwatondo
- Kenya Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Grace Watene
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Akoko
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Bernard Bett
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
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Sala JM, Mansilla FC, Miraglia MC, Caspe SG, Perez-Filgueira DM, Capozzo AV. Kinetics of foot-and-mouth disease vaccine-induced antibody responses in buffaloes ( Bubalus bubalis): avidity ELISA as an alternative to the virus neutralization test. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1162477. [PMID: 38026657 PMCID: PMC10661941 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1162477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of water buffaloes in foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemiology as one of the major hosts of the virus that can develop persistent asymptomatic infection highlights the importance of sustaining surveillance on the antibody response elicited by vaccination in these animals. There is gap in the knowledge on how serological assays that measure antibodies against capsid proteins perform with buffalo samples and which would be the most reliable test to substitute the virus neutralization test (VNT) a cumbersome and low-throughput tool for field surveillance. Alternatively, the liquid-phase blocking sandwich ELISA (LPBE) is commonly used. Previous data from our laboratory demonstrated that the vaccine-induced antibodies assessed by the LPBE yielded low specificity with buffaloes' samples. In contrast, a single-dilution avidity ELISA (AE) aimed to detect high-avidity antibodies against exposed epitopes, combined with an indirect ELISA (IE) to assess IgG levels, produced more reliable results. Here we analyzed for the first time the kinetics of the antibodies induced by vaccination in two different buffalo herds (n = 91) over 120 days using AE, IE, LPBE, and the VNT. Kinetics were similar in the different assays, with an increase of antibodies between 0- and 14-days post-vaccination (dpv) which were maintained thereafter. VNT and AE results were concordant (Kappa value = 0.76), and both assays revealed a decay in the antibody response in calves with maternal antibodies at 90 and 120 dpv, which was not evidenced by the LPBE. These results show that kinetics of antibody responses to FMD vaccination are similar in buffalo and cattle, and support the use of indirect ELISA assays, in particular Avidity ELISA, as alternatives to the VNT for vaccine-immunity monitoring irrespectively of the animal's passive or active immune status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Manuel Sala
- Estación Experimental Agropecuaria, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Mercedes, Corrientes, Argentina
| | - Florencia Celeste Mansilla
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas (CICVyA), INTA-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Técnicas (CONICET), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Cruz Miraglia
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas (CICVyA), INTA-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Técnicas (CONICET), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sergio Gastón Caspe
- Estación Experimental Agropecuaria, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Mercedes, Corrientes, Argentina
| | - Daniel Mariano Perez-Filgueira
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas (CICVyA), INTA-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Técnicas (CONICET), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alejandra Victoria Capozzo
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas (CICVyA), INTA-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Técnicas (CONICET), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Genome Sequences of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus SAT2 Strains Purified from Coinfected Cape Buffalo in Kenya. Microbiol Resour Announc 2022; 11:e0058522. [PMID: 36094207 PMCID: PMC9584222 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00585-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) SAT2 sequences were acquired from Cape buffalo in Kenya in 2016, from either primary passage (n = 38) or plaque purification of dually SAT1/SAT2-infected samples (n = 61). All samples were derived from asymptomatic animals. These sequences contribute to our understanding of FMDV diversity in reservoirs and during subclinical FMDV infections.
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Genome Sequences of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus SAT1 Strains Purified from Coinfected Cape Buffalo in Kenya. Microbiol Resour Announc 2022; 11:e0058422. [PMID: 36094180 PMCID: PMC9584208 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00584-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Nearly complete genomes of 49 novel foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) SAT1 strains acquired from oropharyngeal fluid samples from asymptomatic African Cape buffalo in Kenya in 2016 were determined. Sequences were from primary passage or plaque-purified dually SAT1/SAT2-infected samples. These sequences are important for elucidation of the molecular epidemiology of persistent and subclinical FMDV infections.
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Genome Sequences of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Serotype A and O Strains Obtained from Subclinically Infected Asian Buffalo
(Bubalus bubalis)
in Pakistan. Microbiol Resour Announc 2022; 11:e0057522. [PMID: 35862920 PMCID: PMC9387223 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00575-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the nearly full genome sequences of 14 isolates of serotype A foot-and-mouth disease virus and 5 isolates of serotype O, which were obtained from subclinically infected Asian buffalo in Pakistan in 2011 to 2012. Sequences from subclinically infected animals are rare and complement the more commonly available sequences from clinical cases.
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Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Interserotypic Recombination in Superinfected Carrier Cattle. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11060644. [PMID: 35745498 PMCID: PMC9231328 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11060644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral recombination contributes to the emergence of novel strains with the potential for altered host range, transmissibility, virulence, and immune evasion. For foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), cell culture experiments and phylogenetic analyses of field samples have demonstrated the occurrence of recombination. However, the frequency of recombination and associated virus–host interactions within an infected host have not been determined. We have previously reported the detection of interserotypic recombinant FMDVs in oropharyngeal fluid (OPF) samples of 42% (5/12) of heterologously superinfected FMDV carrier cattle. The present investigation consists of a detailed analysis of the virus populations in these samples including identification and characterization of additional interserotypic minority recombinants. In every animal in which recombination was detected, recombinant viruses were identified in the OPF at the earliest sampling point after superinfection. Some recombinants remained dominant until the end of the experiment, whereas others were outcompeted by parental strains. Genomic analysis of detected recombinants suggests host immune pressure as a major driver of recombinant emergence as all recombinants had capsid-coding regions derived from the superinfecting virus to which the animals did not have detectable antibodies at the time of infection. In vitro analysis of a plaque-purified recombinant virus demonstrated a growth rate comparable to its parental precursors, and measurement of its specific infectivity suggested that the recombinant virus incurred no penalty in packaging its new chimeric genome. These findings have important implications for the potential role of persistently infected carriers in FMDV ecology and the emergence of novel strains.
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Multiple Genomes of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Serotype Asia-1 Obtained from Subclinically Infected Asian Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Pakistan. Microbiol Resour Announc 2022; 11:e0031122. [PMID: 35616404 PMCID: PMC9202389 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00311-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the near-full-genome sequences of 49 isolates of serotype Asia-1 foot-and-mouth disease virus obtained from subclinically infected Asian buffalo in Islamabad Capital Region, Pakistan, in 2011 to 2012. Sequences from subclinically infected animals are exceedingly rare and complement the more commonly available sequences acquired from clinical cases.
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Viral Population Diversity during Co-Infection of Foot-And-Mouth Disease Virus Serotypes SAT1 and SAT2 in African Buffalo in Kenya. Viruses 2022; 14:v14050897. [PMID: 35632639 PMCID: PMC9145140 DOI: 10.3390/v14050897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
African buffalo are the natural reservoirs of the SAT serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in sub-Saharan Africa. Most buffalo are exposed to multiple FMDV serotypes early in life, and a proportion of them become persistently infected carriers. Understanding the genetic diversity and evolution of FMDV in carrier animals is critical to elucidate how FMDV persists in buffalo populations. In this study, we obtained oropharyngeal (OPF) fluid from naturally infected African buffalo, and characterized the genetic diversity of FMDV. Out of 54 FMDV-positive OPF, 5 were co-infected with SAT1 and SAT2 serotypes. From the five co-infected buffalo, we obtained eighty-nine plaque-purified isolates. Isolates obtained directly from OPF and plaque purification were sequenced using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Phylogenetic analyses of the sequences obtained from recombination-free protein-coding regions revealed a discrepancy in the topology of capsid proteins and non-structural proteins. Despite the high divergence in the capsid phylogeny between SAT1 and SAT2 serotypes, viruses from different serotypes that were collected from the same host had a high genetic similarity in non-structural protein-coding regions P2 and P3, suggesting interserotypic recombination. In two of the SAT1 and SAT2 co-infected buffalo identified at the first passage of viral isolation, the plaque-derived SAT2 genomes were distinctly grouped in two different genotypes. These genotypes were not initially detected with the NGS from the first passage (non-purified) virus isolation sample. In one animal with two SAT2 haplotypes, one plaque-derived chimeric sequence was found. These findings demonstrate within-host evolution through recombination and point mutation contributing to broad viral diversity in the wildlife reservoir. These mechanisms may be critical to FMDV persistence at the individual animal and population levels, and may contribute to the emergence of new viruses that have the ability to spill-over to livestock and other wildlife species.
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Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) field studies have suggested the occurrence of simultaneous infection of individual hosts by multiple virus strains; however, the pathogenesis of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) coinfections is largely unknown. In the current study, cattle were experimentally exposed to two FMDV strains of different serotypes (O and A). One cohort was simultaneously infected with both viruses, while additional cohorts were initially infected with FMDV A and subsequently superinfected with FMDV O after 21 or 35 days. Coinfections were confirmed during acute infection, with both viruses concurrently detected in blood, lesions, and secretions. Staggered exposures resulted in overlapping infections as convalescent animals with persistent subclinical FMDV infection were superinfected with a heterologous virus. Staggering virus exposure by 21 days conferred clinical protection in six of eight cattle, which were subclinically infected following the heterologous virus exposure. This effect was transient, as all animals superinfected at 35 days post-initial infection developed fulminant FMD. The majority of cattle maintained persistent infection with one of the two viruses while clearing the other. Analysis of viral genomes confirmed interserotypic recombination events within 10 days in the upper respiratory tract of five superinfected animals from which the dominant genomes contained the capsid coding regions of the O virus and nonstructural coding regions of the A virus. In contrast, there were no dominant recombinant genomes detected in samples from simultaneously coinfected cattle. These findings inculpate persistently infected carriers as potential FMDV mixing vessels in which novel strains may rapidly emerge through superinfection and recombination. IMPORTANCE Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a viral infection of livestock of critical socioeconomic importance. Field studies from areas of endemic FMD suggest that animals can be simultaneously infected by more than one distinct variant of FMD virus (FMDV), potentially resulting in emergence of novel viral strains through recombination. However, there has been limited investigation of the mechanisms of in vivo FMDV coinfections under controlled experimental conditions. Our findings confirmed that cattle could be simultaneously infected by two distinct serotypes of FMDV, with different outcomes associated with the timing of exposure to the two different viruses. Additionally, dominant interserotypic recombinant FMDVs were discovered in multiple samples from the upper respiratory tracts of five superinfected animals, emphasizing the potential importance of persistently infected FMDV carriers as sources of novel FMDV strains.
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Use of Slaughterhouses as Sentinel Points for Genomic Surveillance of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus in Southern Vietnam. Viruses 2021; 13:v13112203. [PMID: 34835007 PMCID: PMC8624567 DOI: 10.3390/v13112203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic diversity of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) poses a challenge to the successful control of the disease, and it is important to identify the emergence of different strains in endemic settings. The objective of this study was to evaluate the sampling of clinically healthy livestock at slaughterhouses as a strategy for genomic FMDV surveillance. Serum samples (n = 11,875) and oropharyngeal fluid (OPF) samples (n = 5045) were collected from clinically healthy cattle and buffalo on farms in eight provinces in southern and northern Vietnam (2015-2019) to characterize viral diversity. Outbreak sequences were collected between 2009 and 2019. In two slaughterhouses in southern Vietnam, 1200 serum and OPF samples were collected from clinically healthy cattle and buffalo (2017 to 2019) as a pilot study on the use of slaughterhouses as sentinel points in surveillance. FMDV VP1 sequences were analyzed using discriminant principal component analysis and time-scaled phylodynamic trees. Six of seven serotype-O and -A clusters circulating in southern Vietnam between 2017-2019 were detected at least once in slaughterhouses, sometimes pre-dating outbreak sequences associated with the same cluster by 4-6 months. Routine sampling at slaughterhouses may provide a timely and efficient strategy for genomic surveillance to identify circulating and emerging FMDV strains.
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Wielgus E, Caron A, Bennitt E, De Garine‐Wichatitsky M, Cain B, Fritz H, Miguel E, Cornélis D, Chamaillé‐Jammes S. Inter‐Group Social Behavior, Contact Patterns and Risk for Pathogen Transmission in Cape Buffalo Populations. J Wildl Manage 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Wielgus
- Department of Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University, All Saints Manchester M15 6BH UK
| | - Alexandre Caron
- Faculdade de Veterinária Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Av. De Moçambique, CP 257 Maputo Mozambique
| | - Emily Bennitt
- Okavango Research Institute University of Botswana Shorobe Road Maun Botswana
| | | | - Bradley Cain
- Department of Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University, All Saints Manchester M15 6BH UK
| | - Herve Fritz
- REHABS, CNRS ‐ Université Lyon 1 ‐ Nelson Mandela University International Research Laboratory George Campus, Madiba Drive George South Africa
| | - Eve Miguel
- Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle Institut de Recherche pour le Développement 911 Avenue Agropolis, 34394 Montpellier cedex 5 France
| | - Daniel Cornélis
- CIRAD, Forêts et Sociétés, F‐34398 Montpellier, France; Forêts et Sociétés Université de Montpellier CIRAD, 34090 Montpellier France
| | - Simon Chamaillé‐Jammes
- CEFE, University of Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD University Paul Valéry Montpellier 3 Montpellier France
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Munsey A, Mwiine FN, Ochwo S, Velazquez-Salinas L, Ahmed Z, Maree F, Rodriguez LL, Rieder E, Perez A, Dellicour S, VanderWaal K. Phylogeographic analysis of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O dispersal and associated drivers in East Africa. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:3815-3825. [PMID: 34008868 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The continued endemicity of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) in East Africa has significant implications for livestock production and poverty reduction, yet its complex epidemiology in endemic settings remains poorly understood. Identifying FMDV dispersal routes and drivers of transmission is key to improved control strategies. Environmental heterogeneity and anthropogenic drivers (e.g., demand for animal products) can impact viral spread by influencing host movements. Here, we utilized FMDV serotype O VP1 genetic sequences and corresponding spatiotemporal data in order to (i) infer the recent dispersal history, and (II) investigate the impact of external factors (cattle density, human population density, proximity to livestock markets, and drought) on dispersal velocity, location, and direction of FMDV serotype O in East Africa. We identified statistical evidence of long-distance transmission events, and we found that FMDV serotype O tends to remain circulating in areas of high cattle density, high human population density, and in close proximity to livestock markets. The latter two findings highlight the influence of anthropogenic factors on FMDV serotype O spread in this region. These findings contribute to the understanding of FMDV epidemiology in East Africa and can help guide improved control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Munsey
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Frank Norbert Mwiine
- Makerere University College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sylvester Ochwo
- Makerere University College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Kampala, Uganda
| | - Lauro Velazquez-Salinas
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, USA.,Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - Zaheer Ahmed
- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS), National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - Francois Maree
- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Luis L Rodriguez
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - Elizabeth Rieder
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - Andres Perez
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Simon Dellicour
- Spatial Epidemiology Laboratory (SpELL), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, USA
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