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Höftberger M, Althammer M, Foissner I, Tenhaken R. Galactose induces formation of cell wall stubs and cell death in Arabidopsis roots. PLANTA 2022; 256:26. [PMID: 35780431 PMCID: PMC9250921 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03919-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Arabidopsis seedlings growing on low concentration of galactose stop regular root growth. Incomplete cell division with cell wall stubs, binuclear and giant cells and lignified root tips are observed. Galactose is a sugar abundant in root cell walls of Arabidopsis. Nevertheless, we found that the germination of Arabidopsis seedlings on galactose containing media causes a strong modification of the root development, as shown by analysing the root with microscopy methods ranging from the bright field over confocal to transmission electron microscopy. At concentrations of about 1 mM, the growth of the primary root stops after a few days though stem cell markers like WOX5 are still expressed. The root tip swells and forms a slightly opaque, partially lignified structure in parts of the cortex and the central cylinder. The formation of the cell plate after mitosis is impaired, often leading to cell wall stubs and binuclear cells. Some cells in the cortex and the central cylinder degenerate, while some rhizodermal and cortical cells increase massively in size. The galactose toxicity phenotype in Arabidopsis depends on the activity of galactokinase and is completely diminished in galactokinase knock-out lines. From the comparison of the galactose toxicity phenotype with those of cytokinesis mutants and plants treated with appropriate inhibitors we speculate that the toxicity syndrome of galactose is caused by interference with intracellular vesicle transport or cell wall biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margit Höftberger
- Department of Environment & Biodiversity, Plant Physiology, All Paris-Lodron University Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Martina Althammer
- Department of Environment & Biodiversity, Plant Physiology, All Paris-Lodron University Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Ilse Foissner
- Department of Environment & Biodiversity, Plant Physiology, All Paris-Lodron University Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Raimund Tenhaken
- Department of Environment & Biodiversity, Plant Physiology, All Paris-Lodron University Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020, Salzburg, Austria.
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Althammer M, Regl C, Herburger K, Blöchl C, Voglas E, Huber CG, Tenhaken R. Overexpression of UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase leads to higher sensitivity towards galactose, providing new insights into the mechanisms of galactose toxicity in plants. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 109:1416-1426. [PMID: 34913539 PMCID: PMC9306886 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Galactose toxicity (Gal-Tox) is a widespread phenomenon ranging from Escherichia coli to mammals and plants. In plants, the predominant pathway for the conversion of galactose into UDP-galactose (UDP-Gal) and UDP-glucose is catalyzed by the enzymes galactokinase, UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase (USP) and UDP-galactose 4-epimerase. Galactose is a major component of cell wall polymers, glycolipids and glycoproteins; therefore, it becomes surprising that exogenous addition of galactose leads to drastic root phenotypes including cessation of primary root growth and induction of lateral root formation. Currently, little is known about galactose-mediated toxicity in plants. In this study, we investigated the role of galactose-containing metabolites like galactose-1-phosphate (Gal-1P) and UDP-Gal in Gal-Tox. Recently published data from mouse models suggest that a reduction of the Gal-1P level via an mRNA-based therapy helps to overcome Gal-Tox. To test this hypothesis in plants, we created Arabidopsis thaliana lines overexpressing USP from Pisum sativum. USP enzyme assays confirmed a threefold higher enzyme activity in the overexpression lines leading to a significant reduction of the Gal-1P level in roots. Interestingly, the overexpression lines are phenotypically more sensitive to the exogenous addition of galactose (0.5 mmol L-1 Gal). Nucleotide sugar analysis via high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed highly elevated UDP-Gal levels in roots of seedlings grown on 1.5 mmol L-1 galactose versus 1.5 mmol L-1 sucrose. Analysis of plant cell wall glycans by comprehensive microarray polymer profiling showed a high abundance of antibody binding recognizing arabinogalactanproteins and extensins under Gal-feeding conditions, indicating that glycoproteins are a major target for elevated UDP-Gal levels in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Althammer
- Department of BiosciencesMolecular Plant PhysiologyUniversity of SalzburgHellbrunnerstr. 34Salzburg5020Austria
| | - Christof Regl
- Department of BiosciencesBioanalytical Research LabsUniversity of SalzburgHellbrunnerstr. 34Salzburg5020Austria
| | - Klaus Herburger
- Department of Plant and Environmental SciencesSection for Plant GlycobiologyUniversity of CopenhagenFrederiksberg1871Denmark
| | - Constantin Blöchl
- Department of BiosciencesBioanalytical Research LabsUniversity of SalzburgHellbrunnerstr. 34Salzburg5020Austria
| | - Elena Voglas
- Department of BiosciencesMolecular Plant PhysiologyUniversity of SalzburgHellbrunnerstr. 34Salzburg5020Austria
| | - Christian G. Huber
- Department of BiosciencesBioanalytical Research LabsUniversity of SalzburgHellbrunnerstr. 34Salzburg5020Austria
| | - Raimund Tenhaken
- Department of BiosciencesMolecular Plant PhysiologyUniversity of SalzburgHellbrunnerstr. 34Salzburg5020Austria
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3
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Mariette A, Kang HS, Heazlewood JL, Persson S, Ebert B, Lampugnani ER. Not Just a Simple Sugar: Arabinose Metabolism and Function in Plants. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 62:1791-1812. [PMID: 34129041 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcab087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Growth, development, structure as well as dynamic adaptations and remodeling processes in plants are largely controlled by properties of their cell walls. These intricate wall structures are mostly made up of different sugars connected through specific glycosidic linkages but also contain many glycosylated proteins. A key plant sugar that is present throughout the plantae, even before the divergence of the land plant lineage, but is not found in animals, is l-arabinose (l-Ara). Here, we summarize and discuss the processes and proteins involved in l-Ara de novo synthesis, l-Ara interconversion, and the assembly and recycling of l-Ara-containing cell wall polymers and proteins. We also discuss the biological function of l-Ara in a context-focused manner, mainly addressing cell wall-related functions that are conferred by the basic physical properties of arabinose-containing polymers/compounds. In this article we explore these processes with the goal of directing future research efforts to the many exciting yet unanswered questions in this research area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alban Mariette
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3170, Australia
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Golm, Germany, Am Mühlenberg 1, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
| | - Hee Sung Kang
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3170, Australia
| | - Joshua L Heazlewood
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3170, Australia
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3170, Australia
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center (CPSC), University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg 1871, Denmark
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Berit Ebert
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3170, Australia
| | - Edwin R Lampugnani
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3170, Australia
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4
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Zhang W, Qin W, Li H, Wu AM. Biosynthesis and Transport of Nucleotide Sugars for Plant Hemicellulose. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:723128. [PMID: 34868108 PMCID: PMC8636097 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.723128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Hemicellulose is entangled with cellulose through hydrogen bonds and meanwhile acts as a bridge for the deposition of lignin monomer in the secondary wall. Therefore, hemicellulose plays a vital role in the utilization of cell wall biomass. Many advances in hemicellulose research have recently been made, and a large number of genes and their functions have been identified and verified. However, due to the diversity and complexity of hemicellulose, the biosynthesis and regulatory mechanisms are yet unknown. In this review, we summarized the types of plant hemicellulose, hemicellulose-specific nucleotide sugar substrates, key transporters, and biosynthesis pathways. This review will contribute to a better understanding of substrate-level regulation of hemicellulose synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenqi Qin
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huiling Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ai-min Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Ai-min Wu,
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Althammer M, Blöchl C, Reischl R, Huber CG, Tenhaken R. Phosphoglucomutase Is Not the Target for Galactose Toxicity in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:167. [PMID: 32180781 PMCID: PMC7059798 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plants synthesize a number of different oligomeric or polymeric sugars containing galactose. During growth and development some of these carbohydrates are metabolized or remodeled releasing galactose as a breakdown product. All plants have established recycling pathways for such sugars, for which they seem to have a limited capacity to cope with. Exceeding these limits results in sugar toxicity, which is observed already at concentrations as low as 1 mmol·l-1 for galactose. The mechanism of galactose toxicity is poorly understood but it seems plausible that the enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism also might be the targets responsible for the adverse effects. Data from yeast and bacteria suggests that the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (PGM) is inhibited by galactose-1-phosphate. To test this hypothesis for plants we expressed recombinant cytosolic PGM3 from Arabidopsis in E. coli. Intriguingly, the enzyme was not inhibited by galactose-1-phosphate at physiological concentrations. Furthermore, PGM3 did not convert galactose-1-phosphate to galactose-6-phosphate, which was suggested as the inhibitory mode of action in yeast. In addition, metabolite levels in Arabidopsis roots were analyzed for their galactose-1-phosphate concentration by means of GC-MS. Seedlings grown on MS-media with sucrose contained less than 10 nmol·g FW-1 of galactose-1-phosphate. However, seedlings from plates, in which the sucrose was replaced by galactose, showed a strong increase of Gal-1-P to levels of up to 200 nmol·g FW-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Althammer
- Molecular Plant Physiology, Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Constantin Blöchl
- Bioanalytical Research Labs, Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Roland Reischl
- Bioanalytical Research Labs, Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christian G. Huber
- Bioanalytical Research Labs, Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Raimund Tenhaken
- Molecular Plant Physiology, Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- *Correspondence: Raimund Tenhaken,
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Zhao C, Zayed O, Zeng F, Liu C, Zhang L, Zhu P, Hsu CC, Tuncil YE, Tao WA, Carpita NC, Zhu JK. Arabinose biosynthesis is critical for salt stress tolerance in Arabidopsis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:274-290. [PMID: 31009077 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The capability to maintain cell wall integrity is critical for plants to adapt to unfavourable conditions. l-Arabinose (Ara) is a constituent of several cell wall polysaccharides and many cell wall-localised glycoproteins, but so far the contribution of Ara metabolism to abiotic stress tolerance is still poorly understood. Here, we report that mutations in the MUR4 (also known as HSR8) gene, which is required for the biosynthesis of UDP-Arap in Arabidopsis, led to reduced root elongation under high concentrations of NaCl, KCl, NaNO3 , or KNO3 . The short root phenotype of the mur4/hsr8 mutants under high salinity is rescued by exogenous Ara or gum arabic, a commercial product of arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) from Acacia senegal. Mutation of the MUR4 gene led to abnormal cell-cell adhesion under salt stress. MUR4 forms either a homodimer or heterodimers with its isoforms. Analysis of the higher order mutants of MUR4 with its three paralogues, MURL, DUR, MEE25, reveals that the paralogues of MUR4 also contribute to the biosynthesis of UDP-Ara and are critical for root elongation. Taken together, our work revealed the importance of the Ara metabolism in salt stress tolerance and also provides new insights into the enzymes involved in the UDP-Ara biosynthesis in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunzhao Zhao
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201602, China
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Omar Zayed
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Fansuo Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Chaoxian Liu
- Maize Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Jilin Provincial Key laboratory of Agricultural Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, Jilin, 130033, China
| | - Peipei Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Chuan-Chih Hsu
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Yunus E Tuncil
- Food Engineering Department, Ordu University, Ordu, 52200, Turkey
| | - W Andy Tao
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Nicholas C Carpita
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Jian-Kang Zhu
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201602, China
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
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Laursen T, Stonebloom SH, Pidatala VR, Birdseye DS, Clausen MH, Mortimer JC, Scheller HV. Bifunctional glycosyltransferases catalyze both extension and termination of pectic galactan oligosaccharides. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 94:340-351. [PMID: 29418030 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Pectins are the most complex polysaccharides of the plant cell wall. Based on the number of methylations, acetylations and glycosidic linkages present in their structures, it is estimated that up to 67 transferase activities are involved in pectin biosynthesis. Pectic galactans constitute a major part of pectin in the form of side-chains of rhamnogalacturonan-I. In Arabidopsis, galactan synthase 1 (GALS1) catalyzes the addition of galactose units from UDP-Gal to growing β-1,4-galactan chains. However, the mechanisms for obtaining varying degrees of polymerization remain poorly understood. In this study, we show that AtGALS1 is bifunctional, catalyzing both the transfer of galactose from UDP-α-d-Gal and the transfer of an arabinopyranose from UDP-β-l-Arap to galactan chains. The two substrates share a similar structure, but UDP-α-d-Gal is the preferred substrate, with a 10-fold higher affinity. Transfer of Arap to galactan prevents further addition of galactose residues, resulting in a lower degree of polymerization. We show that this dual activity occurs both in vitro and in vivo. The herein described bifunctionality of AtGALS1 may suggest that plants can produce the incredible structural diversity of polysaccharides without a dedicated glycosyltransferase for each glycosidic linkage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Laursen
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94702, USA
| | - Solomon H Stonebloom
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94702, USA
| | - Venkataramana R Pidatala
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94702, USA
| | - Devon S Birdseye
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94702, USA
| | - Mads H Clausen
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jenny C Mortimer
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94702, USA
| | - Henrik Vibe Scheller
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94702, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
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Seifert GJ. Mad moves of the building blocks - nucleotide sugars find unexpected paths into cell walls. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:905-907. [PMID: 29796610 PMCID: PMC6019018 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ery026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
This article comments on: Zhao X, Liu N, Shang N, et al. 2018. Three UDP-xylose transporters (UXTs) participate in xylan biosynthesis by conveying cytosolic UDP-xylose into the Golgi lumen in Arabidopsis. Journal of Experimental Botany 69, 1125–1134..
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg J Seifert
- University of Natural Resources and Life Science, BOKU Vienna, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Vienna, Austria
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Engelsdorf T, Will C, Hofmann J, Schmitt C, Merritt BB, Rieger L, Frenger MS, Marschall A, Franke RB, Pattathil S, Voll LM. Cell wall composition and penetration resistance against the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum higginsianum are affected by impaired starch turnover in Arabidopsis mutants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2017; 68:701-713. [PMID: 28204541 PMCID: PMC5441917 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Penetration resistance represents the first level of plant defense against phytopathogenic fungi. Here, we report that the starch-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana phosphoglucomutase (pgm) mutant has impaired penetration resistance against the hemibiotrophic fungus Colletotrichum higginsianum. We could not determine any changes in leaf cutin and epicuticular wax composition or indolic glucosinolate levels, but detected complex alterations in the cell wall monosaccharide composition of pgm. Notably, other mutants deficient in starch biosynthesis (adg1) or mobilization (sex1) had similarly affected cell wall composition and penetration resistance. Glycome profiling analysis showed that both overall cell wall polysaccharide extractability and relative extractability of specific pectin and xylan epitopes were affected in pgm, suggesting extensive structural changes in pgm cell walls. Screening of mutants with alterations in content or modification of specific cell wall monosaccharides indicated an important function of pectic polymers for penetration resistance and hyphal growth of C. higginsianum during the biotrophic interaction phase. While mutants with affected pectic rhamnogalacturonan-I (mur8) were hypersusceptible, penetration frequency and morphology of fungal hyphae were impaired on pmr5 pmr6 mutants with increased pectin levels. Our results reveal a strong impact of starch metabolism on cell wall composition and suggest a link between carbohydrate availability, cell wall pectin and penetration resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Engelsdorf
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Cornelia Will
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jörg Hofmann
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christine Schmitt
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Brian B Merritt
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, The University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Leonie Rieger
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marc S Frenger
- Universität Bonn, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Botany, Department of Ecophysiology, Kirschallee 1, Bonn, Germany
| | - André Marschall
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
- Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg-Simon Ohm, Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Rochus B Franke
- Universität Bonn, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Botany, Department of Ecophysiology, Kirschallee 1, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sivakumar Pattathil
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, The University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Lars M Voll
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Division of Biochemistry, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, Germany
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