Leaflet initiation and blade expansion are separable in compound leaf development

A Novel Secreted Protein of Fusarium oxysporum Promotes Infection by Inhibiting PR-5 Protein in Plant

Fusarium oxysporum, an important soilborne fungal pathogen that causes serious Fusarium wilt disease, secretes diverse effectors during the infection. In this study, we identified a novel secreted cysteine-rich protein, FolSCP1, which contains unknown protein functional domain. Here, we characterized FolSCP1 as a secreted virulence factor that promotes the pathogen infection of host plants by inhibiting diverse plant defence responses. FolSCP1 interacted with the pathogenesis-related 5 (PR-5) protein SlPR5, a positive regulator of tomato plant immunity against multiple tomato pathogens, and effectively attenuated the antifungal activity of the tomato PR-5 protein. FoSCP1, a homologue of FolSCP1, was secreted by a F. oxysporum isolate from infected tobacco and targeted the tobacco PR-5 protein NtPR5 to suppress plant defence for further infection. In summary, our study revealed a fungal virulence strategy in which F. oxysporum secrete effectors that interfere with plant immunity by binding to the PR-5 protein of the host plant and inhibiting its biological activity, thereby promoting fungal infection.

Plant PR1 rescues condensation of the plastid iron-sulfur protein by a fungal effector

Plant pathogens secrete numerous effectors to promote host infection, but whether any of these toxic proteins undergoes phase separation to manipulate plant defence and how the host copes with this event remain elusive. Here we show that the effector FolSvp2, which is secreted from the fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Fol), translocates a tomato iron-sulfur protein (SlISP) from plastids into effector condensates in planta via phase separation. Relocation of SlISP attenuates plant reactive oxygen species production and thus facilitates Fol invasion. The action of FolSvp2 also requires K205 acetylation that prevents ubiquitination-dependent degradation of this protein in both Fol and plant cells. However, tomato has evolved a defence protein, SlPR1. Apoplastic SlPR1 physically interacts with and inhibits FolSvp2 entry into host cells and, consequently, abolishes its deleterious effect. These findings reveal a previously unknown function of PR1 in countering a new mode of effector action.

New Advances in the Study of Regulation of Tomato Flowering-Related Genes Using Biotechnological Approaches

The tomato is a convenient object for studying reproductive processes, which has become a classic. Such complex processes as flowering and fruit setting require an understanding of the fundamental principles of molecular interaction, the structures of genes and proteins, the construction of signaling pathways for transcription regulation, including the synchronous actions of cis-regulatory elements (promoter and enhancer), trans-regulatory elements (transcription factors and regulatory RNAs), and transposable elements and epigenetic regulators (DNA methylation and acetylation, chromatin structure). Here, we discuss the current state of research on tomatoes (2017-2023) devoted to studying the function of genes that regulate flowering and signal regulation systems using genome-editing technologies, RNA interference gene silencing, and gene overexpression, including heterologous expression. Although the central candidate genes for these regulatory components have been identified, a complete picture of their relationship has yet to be formed. Therefore, this review summarizes the latest achievements related to studying the processes of flowering and fruit set. This work attempts to display the gene interaction scheme to better understand the events under consideration.

Integrating genome-wide association and transcriptome analysis to provide molecular insights into heterophylly and eco-adaptability in woody plants

Heterophylly is regard as an important adaptive mechanism in response to different environments within plants. However, the genetic mechanisms responsible for heterophylly in woody plants are still poorly understood. Herein, the divergence of heterophyllous leaves was investigated at morphogenesis and using microdissection and physiological indexes in paper mulberry, and the genetic basis of heterophylly was further revealed combined with genome-wide association study (GWAS), transcriptome analysis and weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA). Our results revealed that the flavonoid content and antioxidant activity increased gradually from the entire leaf to the palmatisect leaf, while the hormone content and net photosynthetic rate decreased. Through GWAS and transcriptome analysis, a total of 98 candidate genes and 2338 differentially expressed genes associated with heterophylly were identified. Importantly, we uncovered critical variations in the candidate genes Bp07g0981 (WOX) and Bp07g0920 (HHO), along with significant differences in haplotypes and expression levels among heterophyllous leaves. Our results also suggested that the genes involved in hormone signaling pathways, antioxidant activity, and flavonoid metabolism might be closely related to the heterophylly of paper mulberry, which could account for the physiological data. Indeed, CR-wox mutant lines showed significant changes in leaf phenotypes, and differential expression profile analysis also highlighted the expression of genes related to phytohormones and transcription factors. Together, the genetic variations and candidate genes detected in this study provide novel insights into the genetic mechanism of heterophylly, and would improve the understanding of eco-adaptability in heterophyllous woody plants.

The role of Class Ⅱ KNOX family in controlling compound leaf patterning in Medicago truncatula

Compound leaf development requires the coordination of genetic factors, hormones, and other signals. In this study, we explored the functions of Class Ⅱ KNOTTED-like homeobox (KNOXII) genes in the model leguminous plant Medicago truncatula. Phenotypic and genetic analyses suggest that MtKNOX4, 5 are able to repress leaflet formation, while MtKNOX3, 9, 10 are not involved in this developmental process. Further investigations have shown that MtKNOX4 represses the CK signal transduction, which is downstream of MtKNOXⅠ-mediated CK biosynthesis. Additionally, two boundary genes, FUSED COMPOUND LEAF1 (orthologue of Arabidopsis Class M KNOX) and NO APICAL MERISTEM (orthologue of Arabidopsis CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON), are necessary for MtKNOX4-mediated compound leaf formation. These findings suggest, that among the members of MtKNOXⅡ, MtKNOX4 plays a crucial role in integrating the CK pathway and boundary regulators, providing new insights into the roles of MtKNOXⅡ in regulating the elaboration of compound leaves in M. truncatula.

Hormonal control of medial-lateral growth and vein formation in the maize leaf

Parallel veins are characteristic of monocots, including grasses (Poaceae). Therefore, how parallel veins develop as the leaf grows in the medial-lateral (ML) dimension is a key question in grass leaf development. Using fluorescent protein reporters, we mapped auxin, cytokinin (CK), and gibberellic acid (GA) response patterns in maize (Zea mays) leaf primordia. We further defined the roles of these hormones in ML growth and vein formation through combinatorial genetic analyses and measurement of hormone concentrations. We discovered a novel pattern of auxin response in the adaxial protoderm that we hypothesize has important implications for the orderly formation of 3° veins early in leaf development. In addition, we found an auxin transport and response pattern in the margins that correlate with the transition from ML to proximal-distal growth. We present evidence that auxin efflux precedes CK response in procambial strand development. We also determined that GA plays an early role in the shoot apical meristem as well as a later role in the primordium to restrict ML growth. We propose an integrative model whereby auxin regulates ML growth and vein formation in the maize leaf through control of GA and CK.

Diversity of tomato leaf form provides novel insights into breeding

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is cultivated widely globally. The crop exhibits tremendous morphological variations because of its long breeding history. Apart from the commercial tomato varieties, wild species and heirlooms are grown in certain regions of the world. Since the fruit constitutes the edible part, much of the agronomical research is focused on it. However, recent studies have indicated that leaf morphology influences fruit quality. As leaves are specialized photosynthetic organs and the vascular systems transport the photosynthetic products to sink organs, the architectural characteristics of the leaves have a strong influence on the final fruit quality. Therefore, comprehensive research focusing on both the fruit and leaf morphology is required for further tomato breeding. This review summarizes an overview of knowledge of the basic tomato leaf development, morphological diversification, and molecular mechanisms behind them and emphasizes its importance in breeding. Finally, we discuss how these findings and knowledge can be applied to future tomato breeding.

Patterns of compound-leaf form and deciduous-leaf habit across forests in China: Their association and key climatic factors

Leaf form (compound vs. simple) and habit (evergreen vs. deciduous) are key functional traits of trees to adapt to various climates and are vital in determining plant response to climate change. However, their association and climatic determinants remain uncertain, especially in East Asian forests in the largest monsoon region on earth. To fill these knowledge gaps, we compiled a dataset comprising 42 intact forests and over 2200 angiosperm tree species across China (spanning 30 latitudes and 47 longitudes). The geographical and climatic patterns of leaf form and habit were analyzed. The association between compound leaf and deciduousness was tested for tropical, subtropical and temperate climatic zones. We found that both the percentage of compound leaf (CT%) and deciduous tree species (DT%) increased with latitude and decreased with mean annual precipitation (MAP). For all forests, DT% was negatively related to mean annual temperature (MAT), whereas CT% was not. Nevertheless, both DT% and CT% increased with increasing MAT in the tropics, possibly owing to the high vapor pressure deficits (VPD) and canopy water deficits associated with high temperatures. A positive linear relationship between CT% and DT% was found across all forests and within different climatic zones except for temperate, and the intercept of the regression line was significantly higher in the tropics than in the subtropics. Overall, as supported by principal component analysis, deciduousness was negatively associated with both temperature and precipitation, while CT negatively with precipitation only across zones and positively with temperature in the tropics. Different relationships in different climatic zones suggest potentially different selective forces. Our findings provide novel insights into the linkage between leaf form and habit, as well as how climate shapes the landscape of broadleaf forests, which has important implications regarding the response of forest composition to climate change.

Molecular mechanisms underlying leaf development, morphological diversification, and beyond

The basic mechanisms of leaf development have been revealed through a combination of genetics and intense analyses in select model species. The genetic basis for diversity in leaf morphology seen in nature is also being unraveled through recent advances in techniques and technologies related to genomics and transcriptomics, which have had a major impact on these comparative studies. However, this has led to the emergence of new unresolved questions about the mechanisms that generate the diversity of leaf form. Here, we provide a review of the current knowledge of the fundamental molecular genetic mechanisms underlying leaf development with an emphasis on natural variation and conserved gene regulatory networks involved in leaf development. Beyond that, we discuss open questions/enigmas in the area of leaf development, how recent technologies can best be deployed to generate a unified understanding of leaf diversity and its evolution, and what untapped fields lie ahead.

Sly-miR159 regulates fruit morphology by modulating GA biosynthesis in tomato

Fruit morphology is an important agronomical trait of many crops. Here, we identify Sly-miR159 as an important regulator of fruit morphology in tomato, a model species of fleshy-fruit development. We show that Sly-miR159 functions through its target SlGAMYB2 to control fruit growth. Suppression of Sly-miR159 and overexpression of SlGAMYB2 result in larger fruits with a reduced length/width ratio, while loss of function of SlGAMYB2 leads to the formation of smaller and more elongated fruits. Gibberellin (GA) is a major phytohormone that regulates fruit development in tomato. We show the Sly-miR159-SlGAMYB2 pathway controls fruit morphology by modulating GA biosynthesis. In particular, we demonstrate that Sly-miR159 promotes GA biosynthesis largely through the direct repression of the GA biosynthetic gene SlGA3ox2 by SlGAMYB2. Together, our findings reveal the action of Sly-miR159 on GA biosynthesis as a previously unidentified mechanism that controls fruit morphology in tomato. Modulating this pathway may have potential applications in tomato breeding for manipulating fruit growth and facilitating the process of fruit improvement.

A Preliminary Investigation on the Functional Validation and Interactions of PoWOX Genes in Peony (Paeonia ostii)

As a woody plant, peony (Paeonia suffruticosa) has a long growth cycle and inefficient traditional breeding techniques. There is an urgent need in peony molecular breeding to establish an efficient and stable in vitro regeneration and genetic transformation system, in order to overcome the recalcitrant characteristics of peony regeneration and shorten the breeding cycle. The development of plant somatic embryos is an important way to establish an efficient and stable in vitro regeneration and genetic transformation system. Plant-specific WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) family transcription factors play important roles in plant development, from embryogenesis to lateral organ development. Therefore, in this research, four PoWOX genes of “Fengdan” (Paeonia ostii) were cloned from the peony genome and transcriptome data of preliminary peony somatic embryos. The sequence characteristics and evolutionary relationships of the PoWOX genes were analyzed. It was demonstrated that the four PoWOX genes, named PoWOX1, PoWOX4, PoWOX11, and PoWOX13, belonged to three branches of the WOX gene family. Their expression patterns were analyzed at different stages of development and in different tissues of peony seedlings. The expression localization of the PoWOX genes was determined to be the nucleus via subcellular localization assay. Finally, the interaction protein of the PoWOX genes was identified via yeast two-hybrid assay combined with bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay. It was shown that PoWOX1 and PoWOX13 proteins could form homodimers by themselves, and PoWOX11 interacted with PoWOX1 and PoWOX13 to form heterodimers. Peony stem cell activity may be regulated from PoWOX1 and PoWOX13 by forming dimers and moving to peony stem cells through plasmodesmata. Additionally, PoWOX11–PoWOX1 and PoWOX11–PoWOX13 may play important regulatory functions in promoting the proliferation of stem cells and maintaining the homeostasis of stem cells in the SAM of peony stems. Exploring the critical genes and regulatory factors in the development of the peony somatic embryo is beneficial not only to understand the molecular and regulatory mechanisms of peony somatic embryo development but also to achieve directed breeding and improvements in efficiency through genetic engineering breeding technology to accelerate the fundamental process of molecular breeding in peony.

Fossils and plant evolution: structural fingerprints and modularity in the evo-devo paradigm

Fossils constitute the principal repository of data that allow for independent tests of hypotheses of biological evolution derived from observations of the extant biota. Traditionally, transformational series of structure, consisting of sequences of fossils of the same lineage through time, have been employed to reconstruct and interpret morphological evolution. More recently, a move toward an updated paradigm was fueled by the deliberate integration of developmental thinking in the inclusion of fossils in reconstruction of morphological evolution. The vehicle for this is provided by structural fingerprints-recognizable morphological and anatomical structures generated by (and reflective of) the deployment of specific genes and regulatory pathways during development. Furthermore, because the regulation of plant development is both modular and hierarchical in nature, combining structural fingerprints recognized in the fossil record with our understanding of the developmental regulation of those structures produces a powerful tool for understanding plant evolution. This is particularly true when the systematic distribution of specific developmental regulatory mechanisms and modules is viewed within an evolutionary (paleo-evo-devo) framework. Here, we discuss several advances in understanding the processes and patterns of evolution, achieved by tracking structural fingerprints with their underlying regulatory modules across lineages, living and fossil: the role of polar auxin regulation in the cellular patterning of secondary xylem and the parallel evolution of arborescence in lycophytes and seed plants; the morphology and life history of early polysporangiophytes and tracheophytes; the role of modularity in the parallel evolution of leaves in euphyllophytes; leaf meristematic activity and the parallel evolution of venation patterns among euphyllophytes; mosaic deployment of regulatory modules and the diverse modes of secondary growth of euphyllophytes; modularity and hierarchy in developmental regulation and the evolution of equisetalean reproductive morphology. More generally, inclusion of plant fossils in the evo-devo paradigm has informed discussions on the evolution of growth patterns and growth responses, sporophyte body plans and their homology, sequences of character evolution, and the evolution of reproductive systems.

Leaf form diversification in an ornamental heirloom tomato results from alterations in two different HOMEOBOX genes

Domesticated plants display diverse phenotypic traits. However, the influence of breeding effort on this phenotypic diversity remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that a single nucleotide deletion in the homeobox motif of BIPINNATA, a BEL-LIKE HOMEODOMAIN gene, led to a highly complex leaf phenotype in an heirloom tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), Silvery Fir Tree (SiFT), which is used as a landscaping and ornamental plant. A comparative gene network analysis revealed that repression of SOLANIFOLIA, the ortholog of WUSCHEL RELATED HOMEOBOX 1, caused the narrow leaflet phenotype seen in SiFT. Comparative genomics indicated that the bip mutation in SiFT likely arose de novo and is unique to SiFT and not introgressed from other tomato genomes. These results provide new insights into the natural variation in phenotypic traits introduced into crops during improvement processes after domestication and establish homeobox genes as evolutionary hotspots.

The leaf meristem enigma: The relationship between the plate meristem and the marginal meristem

Leaf organogenesis is governed by the spatiotemporal activity of the leaf meristem, which has far greater mitotic activity than the shoot apical meristem. The two types of leaf meristems, the plate meristem and the marginal meristem, are distinguished by the location and longevity of their cell proliferative activity. Most leaf lamina outgrowth depends on the plate meristem. The presence of the marginal meristem was a matter of debate in classic anatomy, but recent genetic analyses of leaf growth in Arabidopsis thaliana confirmed its short-lived activity. Several genes key for the regulation of the two meristem types have been identified, and at least superficially, the systems appear to function independently, as they are regulated by different transcription factors and microRNAs. However, many of the details of these regulatory systems, including how the expression of these key factors is spatially regulated, remain unclear. One major unsolved question is the relationship between the plate meristem and the marginal meristem. Here, I present an overview of our current understanding of this topic and discuss questions that remain to be answered.

LATE MERISTEM IDENTITY1 regulates leaf margin development via the auxin transporter gene SMOOTH LEAF MARGIN1

Plant leaves have evolved into diverse shapes and LATE MERISTEM IDENTITY1 (LMI1) and its putative paralogous genes encode homeodomain leucine zipper transcription factors that are proposed evolutionary hotspots for the regulation of leaf development in plants. However, the LMI1-mediated regulatory mechanism underlying leaf shape formation is largely unknown. MtLMI1a and MtLMI1b are putative orthologs of LMI1 in the model legume barrelclover (Medicago truncatula). Here, we investigated the role of MtLMI1a and MtLMI1b in leaf margin morphogenesis by characterizing loss-of-function mutants. MtLMI1a and MtLMI1b are expressed along leaf margin in a near-complementary pattern, and they redundantly promote development of leaf margin serrations, as revealed by the relatively smooth leaf margin in their double mutants. Moreover, MtLMI1s directly activate expression of SMOOTH LEAF MARGIN1 (SLM1), which encodes an auxin efflux carrier, thereby regulating auxin distribution along the leaf margin. Further analysis indicates that MtLMI1s genetically interact with NO APICAL MERISTEM (MtNAM) and the ARGONAUTE7 (MtAGO7)-mediated trans-acting short interfering RNA3 (TAS3 ta-siRNA) pathway to develop the final leaf margin shape. The participation of MtLMI1s in auxin-dependent leaf margin formation is interesting in the context of functional conservation. Furthermore, the diverse expression patterns of LMI1s and their putative paralogs within key domains are important drivers for functional specialization, despite their functional equivalency among species.

Plant multiscale networks: charting plant connectivity by multi-level analysis and imaging techniques

In multicellular and even single-celled organisms, individual components are interconnected at multiscale levels to produce enormously complex biological networks that help these systems maintain homeostasis for development and environmental adaptation. Systems biology studies initially adopted network analysis to explore how relationships between individual components give rise to complex biological processes. Network analysis has been applied to dissect the complex connectivity of mammalian brains across different scales in time and space in The Human Brain Project. In plant science, network analysis has similarly been applied to study the connectivity of plant components at the molecular, subcellular, cellular, organic, and organism levels. Analysis of these multiscale networks contributes to our understanding of how genotype determines phenotype. In this review, we summarized the theoretical framework of plant multiscale networks and introduced studies investigating plant networks by various experimental and computational modalities. We next discussed the currently available analytic methodologies and multi-level imaging techniques used to map multiscale networks in plants. Finally, we highlighted some of the technical challenges and key questions remaining to be addressed in this emerging field.

Coordination of differentiation rate and local patterning in compound-leaf development

The variability in leaf form in nature is immense. Leaf patterning occurs by differential growth, taking place during a limited window of morphogenetic activity at the leaf marginal meristem. While many regulators have been implicated in the designation of the morphogenetic window and in leaf patterning, how these effectors interact to generate a particular form is still not well understood. We investigated the interaction among different effectors of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) compound-leaf development, using genetic and molecular analyses. Mutations in the tomato auxin response factor SlARF5/SlMP, which normally promotes leaflet formation, suppressed the increased leaf complexity of mutants with extended morphogenetic window. Impaired activity of the NAC/CUC transcription factor GOBLET (GOB), which specifies leaflet boundaries, also reduced leaf complexity in these backgrounds. Analysis of genetic interactions showed that the patterning factors SlMP, GOB and the MYB transcription factor LYRATE (LYR) coordinately regulate leaf patterning by modulating in parallel different aspects of leaflet formation and shaping. This work places an array of developmental regulators in a morphogenetic context. It reveals how organ-level differentiation rate and local growth are coordinated to sculpture an organ. These concepts are applicable to the coordination of pattering and differentiation in other species and developmental processes.

The WOX family transcriptional regulator SlLAM1 controls compound leaf and floral organ development in Solanum lycopersicum

Plant-specific WOX family transcription factors play important roles ranging from embryogenesis to lateral organ development. The WOX1 transcription factors, which belong to the modern clade of the WOX family, are known to regulate outgrowth of the leaf blade specifically in the mediolateral axis; however, the role of WOX1 in compound leaf development remains unknown. Phylogenetic analysis of the whole WOX family in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) indicates that there are 10 members that represent the modern, intermediate, and ancient clades. Using phylogenetic analysis and a reverse genetic approach, in this study we identified SlLAM1 in the modern clade and examined its function and tissue-specific expression pattern. We found that knocking out SlLAM1 via CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing led to narrow leaves and a reduced number of secondary leaflets. Overexpression of tomato SlLAM1 could rescue the defects of the tobacco lam1 mutant. Anatomical and transcriptomic analyses demonstrated that floral organ development, fruit size, secondary leaflet initiation, and leaf complexity were altered due to loss-of-function of SlLAM1. These findings demonstrate that tomato SlLAM1 plays an important role in the regulation of secondary leaflet initiation, in addition to its conserved function in blade expansion.