Fear of blood draws, vasovagal reactions, and retention among high school donors

A virtual reality paradigm simulating blood donation serves as a platform to test interventions to promote donation

Effective interventions that support blood donor retention are needed. Yet, integrating an intervention into the time-pressed and operationally sensitive context of a blood donation center requires justification for disruptions to an optimized process. This research provides evidence that virtual reality (VR) paradigms can serve as a research environment in which interventions can be tested prior to being delivered in blood donation centers. Study 1 (N = 48) demonstrated that 360°-video VR blood donation environments elicit a similar profile of emotional experience to a live donor center. Presence and immersion were high, and cybersickness symptoms low. Study 2 (N = 134) was an experiment deploying the 360°-video VR environments to test the impact of an intervention on emotional experience and intentions to donate. Participants in the intervention condition who engaged in a suite of tasks drawn from the process model of emotion regulation (including attentional deployment, positive reappraisal, and response modulation) reported more positive emotion than participants in a control condition, which in turn increased intentions to donate blood. By showing the promise for benefitting donor experience via a relatively low-cost and low-resource methodology, this research supports the use of VR paradigms to trial interventions prior to deployment in operationally-context field settings.

Novel risk patterns of vasovagal reactions in NZ blood donations complicated by COVID-19 restrictions

Introduction

Vasovagal reactions (VVRs) are common but complex donor adverse reactions (DAEs) in blood donations. VVRs have been extensively studied with a multitude of risk factors identified including young age, female gender and first-time donor status. How they may interplay remains obscure.

Methods

A total of 1,984,116 blood donations and 27,952 immediate VVRs (iVVRs) and 1,365 delayed VVRs (dVVRs) reported between 2011 and 2021 in NZ were used in multivariate logistic regression analyses each concerning donations with iVVRs as cases and those free of DAEs as controls. For each analysis stepwise selection was used to identify the best model and risk factors carrying significant main effects and/or interactions. Identified interactions informed further in-depth regression analyses to dissect iVVR risk patterns.

Results

Over 95% of VVRs were iVVRs that had lower female preponderance and deferrals than dVVRs. iVVRs had a school seasonal pattern in whole blood donations driven by first-time donors from schools/colleges, and interactions between gender and age group differentiating the first-time from repeat donations. Subsequent regression analyses identified the known and novel risk factors of year and mobile collection sites and their interactions. iVVR rates were roundly elevated in 2020 and 2021 probably because of COVID-19 restrictions like facemask wearing. Exclusion of the 2020 and 2021 data removed the interactions with year, but confirmed interactions of gender with mobile collection sites (p = 6.2e-07) in first-time donations only and with age group in repeat donations only (p < 2.2e-16), together indicating young female donors at the highest risk of iVVRs. Our results also revealed that donation policy changes contributed to the year effects; donors had a lower iVVR risk at mobile sites than well-medicalized donation centers probably because of under-reporting.

Conclusion

Modeling statistical interactions is valuable in identifying odds and revealing novel iVVR risk patterns and insights into blood donations.

Long-term poor sleep quality is associated with adverse donor reactions in college students in Central China: A population-based cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Adverse donor reaction (ADR) could adversely impact the recruitment and retention of blood donors, but the evidence of effect of sleep quality on ADR is limited and controversial. The goal of this study was to explore the association between the sleep quality and ADR among college students in Wuhan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The college student blood donors in Wuhan from March to May 2022 were recruited. Self-compiled general information questionnaire and Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) were investigated by convenience sampling. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the association.

RESULTS

Among 1014 participants included in this study, 63 were in the ADR group and 951 were in the non-ADR group. Compared with the non-ADR group, the PSQI scores of ADR group were higher (3.44 ± 1.81 vs. 2.78 ± 1.82, p < 0.01). The results of multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that after adjusting gender, body mass index, blood donation history and other potential confounding factors, higher PSQI scores were related to the occurrence of ADRs (odds ratio = 1.231, 95% confidence interval 1.075-1.405), that is, the worse the sleep quality, the more likely the ADRs will occur.

CONCLUSION

The long-term poor sleep quality of college students is a risk factor for the occurrence of ADRs. It should be identified early before blood donation to reduce the incidence of ADRs and improve the safety and satisfaction of donors.

Prevalence and factors associated with vasovagal reaction among whole blood donors in hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia

Adverse donor reactions (ADR) are common to occur during the blood donation process. The most common is vasovagal reactions (VVR) and it cause negative impact in the donor return rate. The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of VVR among blood donors and to study its associated factors, at Hospital University Sains Malaysia (USM). This retrospective case-control study was conducted from June 2018, until June 2021. Data was extracted from the blood bank database system and from donor adverse reaction form. Donors who developed adverse donor reactions were chosen and without VVR were chosen at random as controls. A total of 159 donors, out of 35 134 donors were reported to have VVR which resulted in an overall prevalence of 0.45 %. Dizziness or mild VVR were the most frequently observed adverse reactions, accounting for approximately 87/159 (54.7 %) of all adverse reactions. Multiple logistic regression (MLR) analysis showed VVR were significantly associated with age, female gender, first-time donor, and 450 ml volume of blood collected. The prevalence of vasovagal reactions among blood donors in this study was low which was similar to a few previous studies. Although it was low, still it is very important to reduce risks to a minimum so that the donor return rate could be maintained. The information regarding its associated factors can be used to identify high-risk donors to prevent the incidence in the future.

Blood donation motivators and barriers reported by young, first-time whole blood donors: Examining the association of reported motivators and barriers with subsequent donation behavior and potential sex, race, and ethnic group differences

BACKGROUND

A greater understanding of young, first-time donor motivators and barriers is needed to address the ongoing challenge of retaining these essential donors.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Structured interviews conducted with 508 young, first-time whole blood donors [66.1% female; Mean Age = 19.4 (SD = 2.5) years] were coded to identify reported motivators and barriers. Reported motivators and barriers were then examined for their association with attempted donation behavior over a 14-month follow-up, and for potential sex, race, and ethnic group differences in the frequency of endorsement.

RESULTS

Prosocial motivation (e.g., altruism) was the most commonly reported motivator and fear (e.g., fainting, needles) was the most commonly reported barrier. Donation behavior was unrelated to reported motivators, but was significantly related to four reported barriers including fear of fainting/dizziness, fear of needles/pain, having personal commitments that conflict with donating, and perceiving oneself as unsuited to donate for health reasons. Sex, racial, and ethnic differences were noted with respect to the percentages of donors reporting several donation-related motivators and barriers.

CONCLUSION

The present findings identify donation-related barriers that could be important targets to address in the effort to encourage new young donors and to retain these new donors for the long term. Importantly, these data also highlight the importance of considering individual differences in donor motivation as a function of sex, race, and ethnicity.

Factors associated with first-time and repeat blood donation: Adverse reactions and effects on donor behavior

BACKGROUND

Blood centers have a dual mission to protect donors and patients; donor safety is paramount to maintaining an adequate blood supply. Elucidating donor factors associated with adverse reactions (AR) is critical to this mission.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

A retrospective cohort analysis of whole blood donors from 2003 to 2020 was conducted at a single blood center in northern California. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% CIs for ARs were estimated via multivariable logistic regression on demographics, donation history, and physical examination data. Where appropriate, Wilcoxon-Rank Sum and chi-squared tests were used to determine significance.

RESULTS

First-time blood donors (FTD) exhibited a higher AR rate than repeat donors (4.4% vs. 1.9% p < .0001). When compared with FTDs without AR, FTDs with ARs (FT-AR) were less likely to return (30.0% vs. 47.3%, p < .0001), and, of those who returned, had a higher rate of reaction 20.2% versus 2.8% (p < .001). Factors found to be associated with FT-AR (younger age, increased heart rate, and higher diastolic blood pressure) still correlated positively with AR on return donation, but to a lower degree. FTD who potentially witnessed an AR had a lower return rate (44.6% vs. 47.3%, p = <.001) and donated fewer units (2.38 vs. 3.37, p < .001) when compared to FTD who did not witness an AR.

CONCLUSION

The AR on FTD increases the AR likelihood of return donation. Longitudinal analysis shows that a time-based deferral policy targeted at FT-AR young donors can reduce the number of ARs while not dramatically impacting the blood supply.

What would it take to convince you to donate? A survey study of the relationship between motivators, barriers, and payment for whole blood, plasma, and platelet donation

Background

With growing discussion about blood donor remuneration, the present study examined the level of payment that may be required to convince individuals to engage in whole blood, plasma, and platelet donations.

Study Design and Methods

Anonymous online surveys were completed by a college sample [n = 490; 76.9% female; Mean Age = 20.3 (SD = 4.9) years; 32.9% whole blood donors] and a ResearchMatch sample [n = 323; 70.6% female; Mean Age = 50.7 (SD = 16.6) years; 82.7% whole blood donors]. Level of payment needed to motivate whole blood, plasma, and platelet donation was examined as a function of donation history, sample, and gender. In addition, path analyses examined associations between donation motivators, barriers, and payment level.

Results

Across all types of donation, history of whole blood donation was related to a greater willingness to donate without payment. At the same time, however, sizeable portions of prior donors indicated that monetary payment would convince them to donate whole blood (24%), plasma (51%), or platelets (57%). Across all types of donation, donation‐related barriers (i.e., anxiety, fear) were indirectly related to higher payment levels via lower self‐efficacy and more negative donation attitudes. Donation‐related motivators (i.e., warm glow, regret, and altruism) were indirectly related to lower payment levels via higher self‐efficacy and more positive donation attitudes.

Conclusion

Despite reporting a strong commitment to nonremunerated blood donation, many respondents with and without a history of blood donation indicated that money would convince them to engage in whole blood, plasma, and platelet donation.

Predicting vasovagal reactions to a virtual blood donation using facial image analysis

Background

People with needle fear experience not only anxiety and stress but also vasovagal reactions (VVR), including nausea, dizziness, sweating, pallor changes, or even fainting. However, the mechanism behind needle fear and the VVR response are not yet well understood. The aim of our study was to explore whether fluctuations in facial temperature in several facial regions are related to the level of experienced vasovagal reactions, in a simulated blood donation.

Study design and methods

We recruited 45 students at Tilburg University and filmed them throughout a virtual blood donation procedure using an Infrared Thermal Imaging (ITI) camera. Participants reported their fear of needles and level of experienced vasovagal reactions. ITI data pre‐processing was completed on each video frame by detecting facial landmarks and image alignment before extracting the mean temperature from the six regions of interest.

Results

Temperatures of the chin and left and right cheek areas increased during the virtual blood donation. Mixed‐effects linear regression showed a significant association between self‐reported vasovagal reactions and temperature fluctuations in the area below the nose.

Discussion

Our results suggest that the area below the nose may be an interesting target for measuring vasovagal reactions using video imaging techniques. This is the first in a line of studies, which assess whether it is possible to automatically detect levels of fear and vasovagal reactions using facial imaging, from which the development of e‐health solutions and interventions can benefit.

Fear is associated with attrition of first-time whole blood donors: A longitudinal examination of donor confidence and attitude as potential mediators

BACKGROUND

Elevated fear and anxiety regarding donation-related stimuli (e.g., needles, pain, blood, fainting) has been associated with reduced blood donor recruitment and retention. The present longitudinal study tests the notion that this inverse relationship may be accounted for by lower donation confidence and more negative donation attitudes among fearful first-time donors.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

In a sample of 1479 first-time whole blood donors [67.9% female; mean age = 19.3 (standard deviation (SD) = 2.5) years], path analyses were conducted to examine relationships among donor ratings of fear of blood draw and donation anxiety obtained approximately 1 week after donation, donation confidence and attitudes assessed approximately 6 weeks later, and donation attempts over the 14 months following the original donation.

RESULTS

Path analyses indicated that both fear of blood draws and donation anxiety were associated with fewer attempted donations, and that these effects were indirectly mediated by a combination of lower donor confidence and more negative donation attitudes.

CONCLUSION

Because retention of new blood donors is essential to maintain a healthy blood supply, the results of the present study suggest that first-time donors should be assessed for fear and anxiety so that appropriate strategies can be provided to address their concerns, bolster their confidence and attitudes, and ultimately promote their long-term retention.

Improving the donation experience and reducing venipuncture pain by addressing fears among whole-blood and plasma donors

BACKGROUND

Fear of blood donation is implicated in vasovagal reactions, donor recruitment, and retention. This study examined the extent to which fear among donors is associated with various donor outcomes in an Australian sample, and whether fear can be addressed on-site to reduce adverse reactions and improve the donation experience.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Six hundred and sixty-four donors (age M = 33.4, SD = 12.7; 55% female) participated in a two-center, pragmatic, parallel group, individually randomized controlled trial. Following donor registration and consent, whole-blood (n = 539) and plasma (n = 125) donors were assigned to one of four Conditions: control; fear assessment; fear assessment + brochure; fear assessment + brochure + tailored conversation focused on any self-reported fear and coping strategies. Post-donation questionnaires assessed the donors' experience including positive support, donor self-efficacy, anxiety, fear, venipuncture pain, and vasovagal reactions.

RESULTS

Fear among donors predicted higher venipuncture pain, post-donation anxiety, and vasovagal reactions and remained significant after controlling for other established predictors (i.e., total estimated blood volume, age, sex, and donation experience). Mediational analyses showed that exposure to brochures (with or without the tailored conversation) was associated with less pain, with this effect mediated by donor perceptions of more positive support. Venipuncture pain was also associated with vasovagal reactions, reduced likelihood of return within 6 months, and less satisfaction with the donation experience.

CONCLUSION

The current results underline the importance of interventions to address fear among both whole-blood and plasma donors to secure the safety and well-being of donors and the blood supply.

Promoting the propensity for blood donation through the understanding of its determinants

BACKGROUND

The paper aims to understand the main antecedents related to the blood donation propensity related to both donors and non-donors. With our research, we will analyse the two perspectives to identify similarities and differences concentrating on the Italian context. Blood is a vital resource that strongly affects every national healthcare system's efficacy and sustainability and the system's ability to achieve the goal of universal coverage.

METHODS

The purpose of this paper is to understand the main antecedents of citizens' blood donation intention and the propensity to encourage communication about blood donation among both donors and non-donors. The Theory of Planned Behaviour is adopted as a theoretical lens. An empirical investigation was performed in Italy, adopting a mixed methods research design. First, a qualitative analysis was carried out through 30 in-depth interviews. Then, a survey was used to quantitatively investigate the intention to donate among both donors (N = 173) and non-donors (N = 87). A conceptual model was developed and tested through Structural Equation Modelling, developing a multi-group approach.

RESULTS

The present study confirms the relations proposed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour, even though some differences between the two groups are shown. The construct Information and Communication is crucial for donors, non-donors, whereas for non-donor inhibitors is vital. Service quality has an impact on the propensity to recommend and communicate the value of blood donation.

CONCLUSION

This paper reveals the main differences between donor and non-donor perspectives. Fruitful insights for enhancing blood donation awareness are provided.

Donation related fears predict vasovagal reactions and donor attrition among high school donors

BACKGROUND

This longitudinal study of high school whole blood donors examined relationships among donation-related fears assessed prior to donation, vasovagal reactions to donation, and the proportion of donors who attempted another donation over the subsequent 60 weeks.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Data regarding vasovagal reactions and attempted donation were obtained from donor records of 530 female and 342 male high school donors who answered questions about five types of fear (ie, of blood draw, needles, seeing blood, feeling pain, or fainting) prior to their index donation.

RESULTS

Each type of fear was associated with an increased risk of vasovagal reactions (all P < .001) and a smaller percentage of attempted donations was seen among those who reported at least one type of fear (53%) as compared to those who did not report any fear (62.1%); P = .022; β = -0.374, OR = 0.69; 95% CI, 0.50-0.94. Path analyses of the relationships among fear, vasovagal reaction, and attempted donation revealed significant indirect effects for each type of fear. Specifically, donors who reported fear were at increased odds of experiencing a vasovagal reaction, which, in turn, was associated with decreased odds of attempting a repeat donation.

CONCLUSION

Donation-related fears are associated with reduced donor return rates, and this effect is mediated through an increased risk for vasovagal reactions. For both practical and ethical reasons, blood collectors are encouraged to identify and intervene with fearful donors to reduce the likelihood of negative donation-related symptoms and enhance donor retention.

Knowing the Blood Nondonor to Activate Behaviour

This work is aimed at further developing the study of blood nondonor behaviour through a joint analysis of sociodemographic characteristics, psychological and physical barriers, impure altruism and anticipated emotions, as predictors of intention to donate. To that end, a step-by-step hierarchical regression analysis was applied on a sample of 2383 Spanish nondonors. The study’s results confirm the influence of traditional variables (sociodemographic characteristics, psychological and physical barriers and impure altruism), as well as the power of anticipated emotions, both positive and negative, of donation action and inaction as variables explaining the intention to donate. Another important contribution has been to develop the moderating role of psychological and physical barriers, in addition to impure altruism, on cause–effect relationships between anticipated emotions and intention to donate. A number of practical implications can be derived from this study for transfusion centres responsible for donation promotion.

Estimating the risk of blood donation fainting for self versus others: the moderating effect of fear

BACKGROUND

People overestimate the likelihood that blood donors will experience faint and prefaint reactions, particularly if they are themselves fearful of having blood drawn. This study investigated the influence of making a risk assessment for oneself versus others, and examined whether providing information about the low base rates of reactions affected donation attitude, anxiety, and intention.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

An anonymous online survey was completed by 3702 individuals (53.9% female; mean age, 36.9 years; standard deviation, 12.1 years; range, 18-84) that included questions about fear of having blood drawn and estimation of the risk of donation-related faint and prefaint symptoms for themselves and others. A random one-half of the respondents received accurate information about the proportion of whole blood donors who experience such reactions before all participants completed questions concerning their donation attitude, anxiety, and intention.

RESULTS

Estimates of both faint and prefaint reactions revealed a pattern of lower perceived risk for self versus others among individuals with low fear, and higher perceived risk for self versus others among those with high fear. Provision of accurate information about risk of reactions was associated with more positive donation attitudes (F[1, 3692] = 8.182, p = 0.004) and intentions (F[1, 3692] = 10.137, p = 0.001) but did not significantly affect anxiety.

CONCLUSION

Donation-related fear is associated with inflated expectancies of adverse events, especially regarding oneself. Such fear may be particularly important to address, as it has both a direct and indirect negative effect on donor retention.

Psychosocial characteristics of blood donors influence their voluntary nonmedical lapse

BACKGROUND

Approximately 10% of Dutch donors lapse yearly. Common reasons are nonvoluntary medical issues (e.g., low hemoglobin), reaching the upper age limit, and voluntary (e.g., own request, nonresponse). Little is known about predictors of voluntary noncompliance (lapses). Psychosocial characteristics have been linked to various health behaviors, including voluntary noncompliance. Hence, we investigated whether psychosocial characteristics, measured before the first donation, similarly predict subsequent voluntary nonmedical lapse.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

New donors (n = 4861) randomly received a blood donation survey between July 2008 and March 2009, before their first appointment at the blood bank. Voluntary lapses included personal reasons, nonresponse to invitations, donor who could not be reached, and no show. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression models of lapse on psychosocial characteristics and confounders (e.g., demographics) were estimated.

RESULTS

Of 2964 donors who took the questionnaire, more than one-third (36.5%) had voluntarily lapsed due to nonmedical reasons by 2016. Univariate regression showed that lapse negatively associated with norms, attitudes, and intentions toward blood donation; self-efficacy; and more donation experience. Lapse positively associated with anxiety. Multivariate Cox models showed that lapse was primarily driven by anxiety and need for information.

CONCLUSION

Certain psychosocial characteristics increase risks of voluntary lapse. Especially donors with higher donation anxiety had increased lapsing risks. They might benefit from extra attention during donation. Donors with more information need or wish about procedure and patients were less likely to lapse, indicating that binding with the blood bank might prevent lapse. Generally, this study showed that donor lapse and donor return are determined by different psychosocial factors not just the reverse of each other.

Effects of respiratory and applied muscle tensing interventions on responses to a simulated blood draw among individuals with high needle fear

Fear of blood and needles increases risk for presyncopal symptoms. Applied muscle tension can prevent or attenuate presyncopal symptoms; however, it is not universally effective. This study examined the effects of applied muscle tension, a respiratory intervention, and a no treatment control condition, on presyncopal symptoms and cerebral oxygenation, during a simulated blood draw with individuals highly fearful of needles. Participants (n = 95) completed questionnaires, physiological monitoring, and two trials of a simulated blood draw with recovery. Presyncopal symptoms decreased across trials; however, no group differences emerged. Applied muscle tension was associated with greater cerebral oxygenation during trial two, and greater end-tidal carbon dioxide during both trials. The respiratory intervention did not differ from the no treatment control. Applied muscle tension is an intervention that can increase cerebral oxygenation and end-tidal carbon dioxide. While the respiratory intervention is promising within therapeutic settings, it was not efficacious after a brief audio training.

Sudden unexpected cardio-respiratory arrest after venipuncture in children

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the clinical and socioenvironmental characteristics of sudden cardiorespiratory arrest after venipuncture in children.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective email-based survey of all members of the Korean Pediatric Society. The questionnaire included items on patient demographics, socioenvironmental circumstances of the venipuncture, type of cardiorespiratory arrest, symptoms and signs, treatment, prognosis, and presumed cause of the arrest.

Results

Fourteen patients were identified. Of these, 13 were young children (<2 years old), and 1 was 14 years old. All patients had been previously healthy and had no specific risk factors for sudden cardiorespiratory arrest. Most cases (n=11, 79%) were defined as cardiac or cardiorespiratory arrest, while the remaining cases (n=3, 21%) were defined as respiratory arrest. Aspiration (n=3), acute myocarditis (n=2), and laryngeal chemoreflex (n=1) were presumed as the causes; however, the exact causes were unclear. The overall prognosis was poor (death, n=7; morbidity, n=5; full recovery, n=2). The medical institutions faced severe backlash because of these incidents (out-of-court settlement, n=5; medical lawsuit, n=5; continuous harassment, n=3).

Conclusion

Cardiorespiratory arrest after venipuncture is unpredictable and the probable cause of most cases is a vasovagal reaction. Medical personnel must be aware of the risk of unexpected cardiorespiratory arrest during routine intravenous procedures.

Individual, contextual and network characteristics of blood donors and non-donors: a systematic review of recent literature

BACKGROUND

The ageing population and recent migration flows may negatively affect the blood supply in the long term, increasing the importance of targeted recruitment and retention strategies to address donors. This review sought to identify individual, network and contextual characteristics related to blood donor status and behaviour, to systematically discuss differences between study results, and to identify possible factors to target in recruitment and retention efforts.

METHODS

The systematic review was conducted in accordance with a predefined PROSPERO protocol (CRD42016039591). After quality assessments by multiple independent raters, a final set of 66 peer-reviewed papers, published between October 2009 and January 2017, were included for review.

RESULTS

Individual and contextual characteristics of blood donor status and behaviour were categorised into five main lines of research: donor demographics, motivations and barriers, adverse reactions and deferral, contextual factors, and blood centre factors. Results on donor demographics, motivations and barriers, and contextual factors were inconclusive, differing between studies, countries, and sample characteristics. Adverse reactions and deferral were negatively related to blood donor behaviour. Blood centre factors play an important role in donor management, e.g., providing information, reminders, and (non-)monetary rewards. No studies were found on network characteristics of (non-)donors.

DISCUSSION

Although individual and contextual characteristics strongly relate to blood donor status and behaviour, mechanisms underlying these relations have not been studied sufficiently. We want to stress the importance of longitudinal studies in donor behaviour, exploring the role of life events and network characteristics within blood donor careers. Increased understanding of donor behaviour will assist policy makers of blood collection agencies, with the ultimate goal of safeguarding a sufficient and matching blood supply.

How Can We Improve Retention of the First-Time Donor? A Systematic Review of the Current Evidence

Blood products are critical to health systems and donations by voluntary nonremunerated donors are recommended. Worldwide, however, only around 5% of those eligible to donate do so and around half of those never return to donate again. This review focuses on what deters first-time donors, what predicts their retention, and what interventions may promote retention of this group. A comprehensive search of relevant databases identified 9 studies investigating motives and deterrents of first-time donors, 14 studies investigating predictors for first-time donors (13 whole blood [WB] and 2 plasmapheresis), and 15 studies (in 14 published articles) detailing interventions conducted on first-time donors. Drawing on an established blood donation taxonomy, studies were classified by 2 independent raters. Interventions were also classified into traditional, behavioral, or social science interventions. With only 2 eligible studies among first-time plasmapheresis donors, analyses focused on WB donors. First-time WB donors reported benevolent and collectivistic motivations, as well as personal benefits to commence WB donation. Self-reported deterrents have typically not been examined. Intention predicted first-time donor retention with intention determined by attitudes and a sense of (perceived behavioral) control. However, anxiety, adverse events, and deferrals all deterred retention. Traditional interventions, such as reminders and incentives, are widespread yet had only a small effect on return of first-time donors. Although behavioral science interventions such as fluid loading are effective, the strongest effect for the return of first-time donors was found when individual psychological support was provided. The purpose of this analysis was to identify the factors associated with the commencement and continuation of first WB donations. The current review revealed that self-reported motivators are typically not effective, and most successful predictive factors identified have not been translated into interventions. Future work would do well to identify, manage, and meet donors' expectations along with developing more individualized donation experiences. Blood donor research should delineate donor career stages; addressing first-time donor retention will support stable panels for blood collection agencies.

Donor research in australia: challenges and promise

Donors are the key to the core business of Blood Collection Agencies (BCAs). However, historically, they have not been a focus of research undertaken by these organizations. This model is now changing, with significant donor research groups established in a number of countries, including Australia. Donor research in the Australian Red Cross Blood Service (Blood Service) is concentrated in the Donor and Community Research (DCR) team. Cognizant of the complex and ever-changing landscape with regard to optimal donor management, the DCR team collaborates with academics located at universities around Australia to coordinate a broad program of research that addresses both short- and-long term challenges to the blood supply. This type of collaboration is not, however, without challenges. Two major collaborative programs of the Blood Service's research, focusing on i) the recruitment and retention of plasmapheresis donors and ii) the role of the emotion pride in donor motivation and return, are showcased to elucidate how the challenges of conducting collaborative BCA research can be met. In so doing, these and the other research programs described herein demonstrate how the Blood Service supports and contributes to research that not only revises operational procedures but also contributes to advances in basic science.

Norm perception and communication for vasovagal symptoms in blood donation

BACKGROUND

Blood is a valuable resource, but most people do not donate. One deterrent to blood donation is the anticipation of vasovagal symptoms (e.g., dizziness, nausea, and fainting), despite the fact that such symptoms typically affect a small proportion of donors. The current research examined norm perceptions regarding vasovagal symptom experiences and used a message-framing paradigm to communicate accurate norm information and increase future donation intentions.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Three studies were conducted using young adult samples. In Study 1, donors and nondonors estimated the percentage of people who experience vasovagal symptoms. In Studies 2 and 3, nondonors and donors (respectively) were provided with accurate, positively framed, or negatively framed norm messages and indicated their intentions to donate.

RESULTS

In Study 1 we found that participants vastly overestimated how normative it was to experience vasovagal symptoms and this overestimation was stronger among nondonors. In Studies 2 and 3, we showed that positively framed normative messages ("90% of donors do not experience vasovagal symptoms") were generally more influential than negatively framed messages ("10% of donors do experience vasovagal symptoms"), except among past donors who had unfavorable donation experiences.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that targeting and correcting norm perception may be a critical step toward improving blood donation rates.