Successful treatment of severe immune hemolytic anemia after allogeneic stem cell transplantation with bortezomib: report of a case and review of literature

Adverse events of red blood cell transfusions in patients with sickle cell disease

Blood transfusion is a common medical intervention for patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) and disease related complications. While patients with SCD are at risk for all transfusion related adverse events defined by the National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Biovigilance Component Hemovigilance Module Surveillance Protocol, they are uniquely susceptible to certain adverse events. This review discusses risk factors, mitigation strategies, and management recommendations for alloimmunization, hemolytic transfusion reactions, hyperviscosity and transfusion-associated iron overload in the context of SCD.

Longitudinal proteomics study of serum changes after allogeneic HSCT reveals potential markers of metabolic complications related to aGvHD

Even though hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) allows successful treatment for many malignant and non-malignant disorders, its curative potential remains limited by severe side effects, including infections and other transplant-related complications such as graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). This study examined changes in serum proteome via high-performance two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) during HSCT to search for diagnostic biomarkers for post-HSCT complications. Longitudinal proteomic analysis revealed proteins related to metabolic complications and hemolytic anemia. Retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4), a reliable marker of insulin resistance, was identified, and is possibly associated with the onset mechanism of acute graft-versus-host disease (aGvHD) and/or skin GvHD. Although the cause of insulin resistance is not fully understood, it is thought to be associated with adipocytes inflammation induced by RBP4, iron overload and hemolytic anemia after HSCT, as observed in this study. The present study has demonstrated that insulin resistance and metabolic complications could be immediate complications after transplantation and are associated with aGvHD. The biomarkers revealed in this study are promising tools to be used for improving the early diagnosis of HSCT-associated complications, especially aGvHD, possibly even before clinical manifestations.

Development of New Drugs for Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a rare disorder characterized by the autoantibody-mediated destruction of red blood cells, and treatments for it still remain challenging. Traditional first-line immunosuppressive therapy, which includes corticosteroids and rituximab, is associated with adverse effects as well as treatment failures, and relapses are common. Subsequent lines of therapy are associated with higher rates of toxicity, and some patients remain refractory to currently available treatments. Novel therapies have become promising for this vulnerable population. In this review, we will discuss the mechanism of action, existing data, and ongoing clinical trials of current novel therapies for AIHA, including B-cell-directed therapy, phagocytosis inhibition, plasma cell-directed therapy, and complement inhibition.

Bortezomib in autoimmune hemolytic anemia and beyond

Bortezomib is a first-in-class, potent, selective and reversible proteasome inhibitor approved for the treatment of multiple myeloma (MM) and relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma. In these diseases, bortezomib targets plasma cells and lymphocytes reducing tumor burden. Recently, preclinical evidence highlighted its efficacy in reducing long-lived plasma cells responsible of autoantibodies production in several models of autoimmune conditions. These findings paved the way to a number of experiences of bortezomib use in patients with various autoimmune conditions, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA). The latter is a nice model of autoimmunity in hematology and is caused by the production of autoantibodies against erythrocytes resulting in various degrees of hemolytic anemia. AIHA is classified in warm and cold forms according to the thermal characteristics of the autoantibody, and first-line treatment mainly relies on steroids for warm cases and the anti-CD20 rituximab for cold ones. Relapsed/refractory cases are still an unmet need, and bortezomib has been proposed in this setting with intriguing efficacy. In this review, we collected available literature on bortezomib use in AIHA and in other immune-mediated hematologic and non-hematologic diseases. Overall, most experiences highlight bortezomib efficacy even in multi-relapsed/refractory patients and suggest to consider its use in AIHA after rituximab failure.

Comparison between tube test and automated column agglutination technology on VISION Max for anti-A/B isoagglutinin titres: A multidimensional analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

VISION Max (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Raritan, NJ) measures anti-A/B isoagglutinin titres using automated column agglutination technology (CAT). We compared tube test (TT) and CAT of VISION Max comprehensively, including failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), turnaround time (TAT) and cost, and suggested modified CAT (MCAT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For 100 samples (each 25 for blood type A, B and O with anti-A and anti-B), anti-A/B isoagglutinin titres were measured by TT and CAT (1:2-1:1024 dilution), as well as by MCAT (with agglutination at 1:32 dilution, then perform additional testing from 1:64 to 1:1024). We assessed the agreement and correlation between TT and CAT and compared FMEA (risk priority number [RPN] score), TAT (h:min:sec) and cost (US dollar, US $) among TT, CAT and MCAT.

RESULTS

TT and CAT showed overall substantial agreement (k = 0.73) and high correlation (ρ ≥ 0.75) except blood type O with anti-A (ρ = 0.68). Compared with TT, CAT showed lower RPN scores in FMEA and similar TAT and cost (FMEA, 33,700 vs. 184,300; TAT, 15:23:00 vs. 14:26:40; cost, 1377.4 vs. 1312.4, respectively). Regarding FMEA, TAT and cost, MCAT was superior to CAT or TT (43,810; 13:28:00; 899.2, respectively).

CONCLUSION

This is the first multidimensional analysis on VISION Max CAT for measuring anti-A/B isoagglutinin titres. The results of anti-A/B isoagglutinin titres by CAT were comparable with those of TT. MCAT would be a safe, time-saving and cost-effective alternative to TT and CAT in high-volume blood bank laboratories.

Bortezomib for treatment-refractory autoimmune haemolytic anaemia following multivisceral transplantation

A 25-year-old man who received alemtuzumab as induction therapy for a multivisceral transplant experienced delayed onset of warm autoimmune haemolytic anaemia and neutropaenia. Serological testing and bone marrow biopsy excluded alternative causes. Haemolysis was refractory to standard therapies including corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin and rituximab. The patient was successfully treated with bortezomib, a proteasome inhibitor, and has remained well as an outpatient without evidence of ongoing haemolysis.

Immune cytopenia after allogeneic haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation: challenges, approaches, and future directions

Immune-mediated cytopenia after allogeneic haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation is rare. The pathophysiology of immune-mediated anaemia, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia, which occur alone or in combination with other cytopenias, is unclear and most probably a consequence of immune dysregulation. Risk factors for this complication have been identified in retrospective studies but these should be interpreted with caution and should not be generalised to this heterogeneous patient population. Diagnosis is challenging, requires awareness of such complications, and has to be differentiated from a multitude of other, and sometimes overlapping, possible complications. The clinical course of immune-mediated cytopenia is highly variable. Treatment requires an interdisciplinary approach and ranges from observation to symptomatic measures and directed therapies. Intensive immunosuppression is associated with an increased risk of infections and relapse, and current treatments are based on approaches in patients who have not undergone transplantation. Plasma cell-directed therapies, immunomodulation, and receptor-stimulating agents can be used to treat immune-mediated cytopenia.

Outcome of autoimmune cytopenia after hematopoietic cell transplantation in primary immunodeficiency

BACKGROUND

Post hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) autoimmune cytopenia (AIC) is a potentially life-threatening complication, but studies focusing on large cohorts of patients transplanted for primary immunodeficiency are lacking.

OBJECTIVES

This study sought to determine the incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of post-HCT AIC and B-lymphocyte function following rituximab.

METHODS

We retrospectively studied 502 children with primary immunodeficiency who were transplanted at our center between 1987 and 2018.

RESULTS

Thirty-six patients (9%) developed post-HCT AIC, with a median onset of 6.5 months post-HCT. On univariate analysis, pre-HCT AIC, mismatched donor, alemtuzumab, anti-thymocyte antiglobulin, and acute and chronic graft versus host disease were significantly associated with post-HCT AIC. After multivariate analysis, alemtuzumab (subdistribution hazard ratio, 9.0; 95% CI, 1.50-54.0; P = .02) was independently associated with post-HCT AIC. Corticosteroid and high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin achieved remission in 50% (n = 18), additional rituximab led to remission in 25% (n = 9), and the remaining 25% were treated with a combination of various modalities including sirolimus (n = 5), bortezomib (n = 3), mycophenolate mofetil (n = 2), splenectomy (n = 2), and second HCT (n = 3). The mortality of post-HCT AIC reduced from 25% (4 of 16) prior to 2011 to 5% (1 of 20) after 2011. The median follow-up of 5.8 years (range, 0.4 to 29.1 years) showed that 26 of 30 survivors (87%) were in complete remission, and 4 were in remission with ongoing sirolimus and low-dose steroids. Of the 17 who received rituximab, 7 had B-lymphocyte recovery, 5 had persistent low B-lymphocyte count and remained on intravenous immunoglobulin replacement, 2 had second HCT, and 3 died.

CONCLUSIONS

The frequency of post HCT AIC in our cohort was 9%, and the most significant risk factors for its occurrence were the presence of graft versus host disease and the use of alemtuzumab.

Management of refractory autoimmune hemolytic anemia after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: current perspectives

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is increasingly observed after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT), with a reported incidence between 4% and 6%. The disease is generally severe and refractory to standard therapy, with high mortality, and there are neither defined therapies, nor prospective clinical trials addressing the best treatment. Most of the knowledge on the therapy of AIHAs derives from primary forms, which are highly heterogeneous as well, further complicating the management of post-allo-HSCT forms. The review addresses the risk factors associated with post-allo-AIHA, including unrelated donor, the development of chronic extensive graft-versus-host disease, CMV reactivation, nonmalignant diagnosis pre-HSCT, and alemtuzumab use in conditioning regimens. Regarding therapy, we describe standard treatments, such as corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, splenectomy, rituximab, cyclophosphamide, and plasma exchange, which have lower response rates than those reported in primary forms. New therapeutic options, including sirolimus, bortezomib, abatacept, daratumumab and complement inhibitors, are promising tools for this detrimental complication occurring after allo-HSCT.

Refractory autoimmune haemolytic anaemia following allogenic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: successful treatment of rituximab

Objective

To investigate the effectiveness and safety of rituximab in treating autoimmune haemolytic anaemia (AIHA) after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT).

Methods

Patients with refractory AIHA following allo-HSCT were treated once-weekly with rituximab 375 mg/m² for a total of four doses. In an animal study, recipient CB6F1 mice were conditioned with busulfan/fludarabine and transplanted with splenocytes and T-cell-depleted bone marrow from C57Bl/6 mice. In this animal model, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (mAb) was evaluated to see if it could prevent graft versus host disease (GVHD). GVHD was monitored by body weight loss, GVHD clinical scores and the survival of each group of mice. Histopathological analyses of the skin, intestine, liver and lung were used to analyse the severity of GVHD.

Results

After rituximab therapy, refractory AIHA was resolved in all four patients as shown by increased haemoglobin levels. B-cell proportions were reduced with a relative increase of the proportions of T-cells following rituximab treatment. None of the four patients experienced chronic GVHD. In the animal model, anti-CD20 mAb treatment reduced GVHD.

Conclusions

Rituximab therapy deserves consideration for the treatment of post-HSCT patients with refractory AIHA. Further studies are needed to define the therapeutic role of this anti-CD20 mAb.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia and immune thrombocytopenia following hematopoietic stem cell transplant: A critical review of the literature

Autoimmune cytopenias (AIC) post-hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) are rare but exceptionally challenging complication. We conducted a comprehensive literature review and identified a pooled incidence of post-HSCT autoimmune hemolytic anemia and/or immune thrombocytopenia of 2.66% (SE = 0.27) in pediatric patients. Nonmalignant disease, unrelated donor transplant, peripheral or cord blood stem cell source, conditioning regimen without total body irradiation, and presence of chronic graft-versus-host disease were prominent risk factors. Treatment was highly variable, and cytopenias were commonly refractory. AIC represent a significant post-HSCT complication. We report here the incidence, risk factors, and possible biology behind the development of AIC in pediatric post-HSCT patients.

Challenges in preventing and treating hemolytic complications associated with red blood cell transfusion

Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion support represents a critical component of sickle cell disease (SCD) management. However, as with any therapeutic intervention, RBC transfusion is not without risk. Repeat exposure to allogeneic RBCs can result in the development of RBC alloantibodies that can make it difficult to find compatible RBCs for future transfusions and can directly increase the risk of developing acute or delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions, which can be further complicated by hyperhemolysis. Several prophylactic and treatment strategies have been employed in an effort to reduce or prevent hemolytic transfusion reactions. However, conflicting data exist regarding the efficacy of many of these approaches. We will explore the challenges associated with predicting, preventing and treating different types of hemolytic transfusion reactions in patients with SCD in addition to describing future strategies that may aid in the management of the complex transfusion requirements of SCD patients.

Challenges in the treatment and prevention of delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions with hyperhemolysis in sickle cell disease patients

BACKGROUND

Delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions (DHTRs) are serious complications of RBC transfusion that can occur in previously alloimmunized patients. Patients who require episodic transfusions during heightened inflammatory states, such as patients with sickle cell disease (SCD), are particularly prone to alloimmunization and developing DHTRs with hyperhemolysis. While efforts to mitigate these hemolytic episodes via immunosuppressive drugs can be employed, the relative efficacy of various treatment options remains incompletely understood.

CASE REPORTS

In this study, we explored five patients with SCD and multiple RBC alloantibodies who received various forms of immunosuppressive therapy in an attempt to prevent or treat severe DHTRs.

RESULTS

The clinical course for these five patients provides insight into the difficulty of effectively treating and preventing DHTRs in patients with SCD with currently available immunosuppressive therapies.

CONCLUSION

Based on our experience, and the current literature, it is difficult to predict the potential impact of various immunosuppressive therapies when seeking to prevent or treat DHTRs. Future mechanistic studies are needed to identify the optimal treatment options for DHTRs in the presence or absence of distinct alloantibodies in patients with SCD.

[Clinical analysis of autoimmune hemolytic anemia after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in thalassemia major]

目的

探讨重型地中海贫血（地贫）患者异基因造血干细胞移植（allo-HSCT）后并发自身免疫性溶血性贫血（AIHA）诊断、治疗及转归，以提高地贫患者造血干细胞移植疗效。

方法

回顾性分析2007年7月至2017年12月共计291例行allo-HSCT重型地贫患者的临床资料。

结果

重型地贫allo-HSCT后AIHA发生率为1.72%（5/291）；AIHA中位发生时间为移植后7（5~12）个月，5例移植后AIHA患者直接和间接Coombs试验均阳性，患者主要表现为头晕、乏力、面色苍白、皮肤巩膜黄染、酱油色尿。228例HLA相合同胞供者移植患者有1例（0.43%）移植后发生AIHA，而63例非亲缘供者移植患者有4例（6.36%）移植后发生AIHA。非亲缘供者移植患者AIHA发生率高于HLA相合同胞供者移植患者。1例患者单用泼尼松治疗死亡，4例患者采用甲泼尼龙联合利妥昔单抗治疗有效，目前生存良好，其中2例Coombs试验转阴。

结论

该组重型地贫患者allo-HSCT后AIHA发生率为1.72%，Coombs试验有助于诊断移植后AIHA，非亲缘供者移植病例移植后AIHA发生率高于HLA相合同胞供者移植组，利妥昔单抗联合糖皮质激素是治疗重型地贫allo-HSCT后AIHA的有效方法。

Current and emerging treatment options for autoimmune hemolytic anemia

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a heterogeneous disease mainly due to autoantibody-mediated destruction of erythrocytes but also involves complement activation, dysregulation of cellular and innate immunity, and defective bone marrow compensatory response. Several drugs targeting these mechanisms are under development in addition to standard therapies. Areas covered: The following targeted therapies are illustrated: drugs acting on CD20 (rituximab, alone or in association with bendamustine and fludarabine) and CD52 (alemtuzumab), B cell receptor and proteasome inhibitors (ibrutinib, bortezomib), complement inhibitors (eculizumab, BIVV009, APL-2), and other drugs targeting T lymphocytes (subcutaneous IL-2, belimumab, and mTOR inhibitors), IgG driven extravascular hemolysis (fostamatinib), and bone marrow activity (luspatercept). Expert opinion: Although AIHA is considered benign and often easy to treat, chronic/refractory cases represent a challenge even for experts in the field. Bone marrow biopsy is fundamental to assess one of the main mechanisms contributing to AIHA severity, i.e. inadequate compensation, along with lymphoid infiltrate, the presence of fibrosis or dyserythropoiesis. The latter may give hints for targeted therapies (either B or T cell directed) and for new immunomodulatory drugs. Future studies on the genomic landscape in AIHA will further help in designing the best choice, sequence and/or combination of targeted therapies.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT): A retrospective analysis and a proposal of treatment on behalf of the Grupo Español De Trasplante de Medula Osea en Niños (GETMON) and the Grupo Español de Trasplante Hematopoyetico (GETH)

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a complication of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) associated with poor outcome. However, an optimal therapeutic approach is lacking. Between 2000 and 2015, 4099 allogeneic HSCT were performed in eight pediatric centers of the Grupo Español De Trasplante de Medula Osea en Niños (GETMON) and six adult centers of the Grupo Español de Trasplante Hematopoyetico (GETH). Sixty cases of AIHA were registered with a cumulative incidence of 1.5% occurring at a median of 6 months after HSCT. Patients aged less than 15 years (P=.005), and patients using cord blood (P=.005) or an HLA mismatch donor (P=.005) were more likely to develop AIHA. Most patients were lymphopenic at the time of diagnosis of AIHA, including a low number of regulatory T lymphocytes (median 3/μL). Median lines of treatment received for AIHA was 3 (range, 1-7). Almost all patients received corticosteroids (88%) and more than half received immunoglobulins or rituximab (63% and 67%, respectively). Complete resolution of AIHA was achieved in 33 of 60 cases (55%). Cumulative incidence of AIHA-related mortality was 17±6%. We found a correlation of AIHA outcome with age (better outcome in younger than 15 years, RR=1.87, P=.01) and rituximab response (higher rate of complete remission in patients responding to rituximab, RR=1.72, P=.025). We analyzed the factors involved in the response to rituximab and found a better response when there was ABO donor/receptor disparity (P=.014) and in those patients with B lymphocytes count above the median (38/μL) (P=.05).Thirty-six of 60 patients survived yielding a disease free survival of 52±8% at 40 months. In Cox analysis, age (children vs adults, HR: 8.19, CI 95%: 2.39-28.12, P=.001) and AIHA outcome (complete remission vs partial remission/non-response, HR: 4.18, CI 95%: 1.55-11.22, P=.005) were associated with a better survival. Our data suggest that patients who developed AIHA after HSCT are severely lymphopenic and have a high risk of mortality. Outcome is better in children and in patients treated with rituximab. We also propose an algorithm for treatment of AIHA after HSCT.

Risk factor analysis of autoimmune hemolytic anemia after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a clinically relevant complication after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Currently, there is no established consensus regarding the optimal therapeutic approach. Whether AIHA contributes to increased mortality is still somewhat controversial.We investigated the incidence, risk factors, and outcome of post-transplant AIHA in 265 consecutive pediatric patients undergoing allo-HSCT over a 17-year period. Onset of AIHA was calculated from the first documented detection of AIHA by either clinical symptoms or positive direct agglutinin test. Resolution of AIHA was defined as normalization of hemoglobin and biochemical markers of hemolysis with sustained transfusion independence.We identified 15 cases of AIHA after allo-HSCT (incidence rate, 6%). Ten (67%) of these patients had a positive direct antiglobulin test. Data were obtained for 9 boys and 6 girls after a median follow-up of 53 months (range 4-102). The median age was 5.1 years (range 0.5-15.4) at the time of HSCT and the median time to emergence was 149 days (range 42-273). No significant risk factor for post-transplant AIHA has emerged from our data to date. In the majority (14 of 15; 93%) of AIHA patients, multiple agents for treatment were required, with 12 of 15 (80%) patients achieving complete resolution of AIHA. No splenectomy was performed in any of our patients.For various reasons, post-transplantation AIHA poses an extraordinary challenge to transplant physicians. Despite the advancements in diagnostic tools, therapeutic challenges remain due to the myriad interacting pathways in AIHA.

Bortezomib decreases the magnitude of a primary humoral immune response to transfused red blood cells in a murine model

BACKGROUND

Few therapeutic options currently exist to prevent or to mitigate transfusion-associated red blood cell (RBC) alloimmunization. We hypothesized that bortezomib, a proteasome inhibitor currently being utilized for HLA alloantibody and ADAMTS13 autoantibody reduction, may be beneficial in a transfusion setting. Herein, we utilized a reductionist murine model to test our hypothesis that bortezomib would decrease RBC alloimmune responses.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Wild-type mice were treated with bortezomib or saline and transfused with murine RBCs expressing the human KEL glycoprotein. Levels of anti-KEL immunoglobulins in transfusion recipients were measured by flow cytometry. The impact of bortezomib treatment on recipient plasma cells (PCs) and other immune cells was also assessed by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

After bortezomib treatment, mice had a 50% reduction in splenic white blood cells and a targeted reduction in marrow PCs. Mice treated with bortezomib before the transfusion of KEL RBCs became alloimmunized in three of three experiments, although their serum anti-KEL IgG levels were 2.6-fold lower than those in untreated mice. Once a primary antibody response was established, bortezomib treatment did not prevent an anamnestic response from occurring.

CONCLUSION

To the extent that these findings are generalizable to other RBC antigens and to humans, bortezomib monotherapy is unlikely to be of significant clinical benefit in a transfusion setting where complete prevention of alloimmunization is desirable. Given the impact on PCs, however, it remains plausible that bortezomib therapy may be beneficial for RBC alloimmunization prevention or mitigation if used in combination with other immunomodulatory therapies.

IL-33 reflects dynamics of disease activity in patients with autoimmune hemolytic anemia by regulating autoantibody production

Background

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA), a life-threatening anemia with rapid onset, is caused by autoantibody directed to self red blood cells (RBCs). Currently, mechanisms underlying AIHA pathogenesis are largely undefined. Here we explored the correlation of IL-33 with AIHA disease activity and evaluated IL-33 based therapeutics in AIHA treatment.

Methods

Thirty patients diagnosed with AIHA of warm-type autoantibodies without treatment were enrolled and followed up for 6 months. Levels of cytokines including IL-33, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-13 was determined with ELISA. AIHA disease activity was presented by levels of reticulocyte count, hemoglobin and lactate dehydrogenase. Serum RBC-bound IgG autoantibody was detected using anti-IgG antibody with flow cytometry. To evaluate the effect of IL-33 blockade on AIHA development, groups of B6 mice were immunized with rat RBCs plus recombinant IL-33 protein or IL-33 neutralizing antibody respectively and detected for levels of anti-RBC antibody, frequency of reticulocytes and destruction of transfused syngeneic mouse RBCs.

Results

Serum level of IL-33 was higher in AIHA patients compared with healthy individuals. Of interest, serum IL-33 was positively correlated with AIHA disease activity and sensitive to their changes in AIHA patients under clinical management. Mechanistically, IL-33 could promote the production of anti-RBC autoantibody. Serum IL-33 was closely associated with serum anti-RBC autoantibody and sensitive to their changes in AIHA patients. Accordingly, blockade of IL-33 interfered with AIHA incidence and ameliorated disease activity. Vice vasa, enforced IL-33 promoted AIHA incidence and disease activity.

Conclusions

IL-33 was a potential biomarker for monitoring disease activity and therapeutic response in AIHA patients. Targeting IL-33 was a promising strategy for controlling autoantibody production in AIHA patients.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-015-0745-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Precautions surrounding blood transfusion in autoimmune haemolytic anaemias are overestimated

BACKGROUND

It is very evident that many precautions are taken regarding transfusion of red blood cells in patients with autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Frequently, considerable efforts are made to examine the indication and serological compatibility prior to transfusion in such patients. However, at times, this may unnecessarily jeopardize patients who urgently require a red blood cell transfusion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-six patients with warm-type autoimmune haemolytic anaemia were included in this study. All patients had reactive serum autoantibodies and required blood transfusion. Standard serological assays were employed for the detection and characterization of antibodies to red blood cells.

RESULTS

A positive direct antiglobulin test was observed in all 36 patients, in addition to detectable antibodies in both the eluate and serum. Significant alloantibodies were detected in the serum samples of three patients (anti-c, anti-JK(a), and anti-E). In 32 patients, red blood cell transfusion was administered with no significant haemolytic transfusion reactions due to auto- and/or allo-antibodies. Due to overestimation of positive cross-matches three patients received no transfusion or delayed transfusion and died, and one patient died due to unrecognised blood loss and anaemia which was attributed to an ineffective red blood cell transfusion.

DISCUSSION

Many of the reported recommendations regarding transfusion of red blood cells in autoimmune haemolytic anaemia are highly questionable, and positive serological cross-matches should not result in a delay or refusal of necessary blood transfusions.