Altered mRNA and protein expression of filaggrin in the skin of a canine animal model for atopic dermatitis

Studies Using Antibodies against Filaggrin and Filaggrin 2 in Canine Normal and Atopic Skin Biopsies

Filaggrin is important for the skin barrier and atopic dermatitis. Another filaggrin-like protein, filaggrin 2, has been described. We evaluated antibodies against both filaggrins in normal and atopic skin biopsies from dogs before and after allergen challenges (D0, D1, D3 and D10). Filaggrins expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. We used PCR to investigate changes in filaggrin gene expression. Effects of group (p = 0.0134) and time (p = 0.0422) were shown for the intensity of filaggrin staining. Only an effect of group was found for filaggrin 2 (p = 0.0129). Atopic samples had higher intensity of staining than normal dogs [filaggrin on D3 (p = 0.0155) and filaggrin 2 on D3 (p = 0.0038) and D10 (p < 0.0001)]. Atopic samples showed increased epidermal thickness after allergen exposure (D3 vs. D0, p = 0.005), while normal dogs did not. In atopic samples, significant increased gene expression was found for filaggrin overtime but not for filaggrin 2. Western blot showed an increase in filaggrin 2 on D3. A small size band (15 kD) containing a filaggrin sequence was found in Western blots of atopic samples only. We conclude that atopic skin reacts to allergen exposure by proliferating and increasing filaggrin production but that it also has more extensive filaggrin degradation compared to normal skin.

Update on the skin barrier, cutaneous microbiome and host defence peptides in canine atopic dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Canine atopic dermatitis (AD) is a complex inflammatory skin disease associated with cutaneous microbiome, immunological and skin barrier alterations. This review summarises the current evidence on skin barrier defects and on cutaneous microbiome dysfunction in canine AD.

OBJECTIVE

To this aim, online citation databases, abstracts and proceedings from international meetings on skin barrier and cutaneous microbiome published between 2015 and 2023 were reviewed.

RESULTS

Since the last update on the pathogenesis of canine AD, published by the International Committee on Allergic Diseases of Animals in 2015, 49 articles have been published on skin barrier function, cutaneous/aural innate immunity and the cutaneous/aural microbiome in atopic dogs. Skin barrier dysfunction and cutaneous microbial dysbiosis are essential players in the pathogenesis of canine AD. It is still unclear if such alterations are primary or secondary to cutaneous inflammation, although some evidence supports their primary involvement in the pathogenesis of canine AD.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Although many studies have been published since 2015, the understanding of the cutaneous host-microbe interaction is still unclear, as is the role that cutaneous dysbiosis plays in the development and/or worsening of canine AD. More studies are needed aiming to design new therapeutic approaches to restore the skin barrier, to increase and optimise the cutaneous natural defences, and to rebalance the cutaneous microbiome.

Establishment of an experimental model of ovalbumin-induced atopic dermatitis in canines

Introduction

A reliable standard model is required to evaluate the efficacy of new drugs for companion animals, especially dogs. Canine atopic dermatitis (cAD), also known as allergic inflammatory skin disease, is a common condition. Currently, the house dust mite animal model is used in the research of cAD; however, this model exhibits significant individual variation and is difficult to standardize. In this study, we used ovalbumin as an antigen to sensitize and stimulate dogs, thereby establishing a stable model mimicking the T-helper 2 (Th2) response seen in cAD. Our objective was to create a cAD model that could be employed to evaluate the efficacy of novel drugs and mimic the Th2 dominant allergic response observed in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis of dogs.

Methods

In this study, six beagles were used. Normal saline was applied to two animals, and ovalbumin to four, on their dorsal skin.

Results

The ovalbumin-treated groups exhibited clinical cAD symptoms, such as pruritus and erythema. Moreover, plasma levels of the cAD markers immunoglobulin E and CCL17 chemokine were higher in the ovalbumin-treated group than in the vehicle control group. The skin thickness of the epidermis was significantly increased in the ovalbumin-treated group, with infiltration of inflammatory cells observed in the thickened dermis region. In conclusion, treatment of canine skin with an optimal concentration of ovalbumin induced typical cAD-like symptoms, and histological and molecular analyses confirmed an enhanced Th2-related immune response.

Conclusion

Therefore, we successfully established a suitable Th2-dominant response mimicking cAD, which will facilitate targeted research of atopic dermatitis in dogs.

Canine Models of Inflammatory Skin Diseases and Their Application in Pharmacological Research

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of existing pharmacological models of canine dermatitis. Canine models of dermatitis have contributed significantly to our current understanding of the pathology of dermatitis and to the development of corresponding pharmacological interventions. Specifically, canine atopic dermatitis (AD) is reviewed here, as it is one of the most common inflammatory skin diseases in dogs. Canine AD also shares clinicopathological features with human AD, making the dog a natural and optimal model for human disease. Thus, pharmacological models of canine AD may be uniquely applicable to human pharmacological research. In this article, particular attention is dedicated to relevant in vivo, in vitro, and ex vivo models of canine AD, skin barrier defect models, pruritus models, and skin immunology models. Additionally, models of superficial pyoderma and food allergy are also discussed. With understanding of findings from canine models, researchers can select the most salient features for future pharmacological drug development. © 2023 Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Differences in Behavior between Normal and Atopic Keratinocytes in Culture: Pilot Studies

Skin barrier dysfunction is important in atopic dermatitis and can be secondary to inflammation. Observation of keratinocytes in culture may show intrinsic differences. TransEpithelial Electrical Resistance (TEER) measures epithelial permeability. We cultured normal and atopic keratinocytes and found that TEER of atopic keratinocytes was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) than that of normals. Atopic keratinocytes grew upwards, first creating isolated dome-like structures and later horizontally into a monolayer. At time of confluence (D0), atopic keratinocytes were more differentiated, with higher filaggrin gene expression than normals. No differences existed between groups for TJ proteins (claudin, occludin, and Zonula Occludens-1) on D0 and D6. On D6, claudin and occludin were higher than D0, in normal (p = 0.0296 and p = 0.0011) and atopic keratinocytes (p = 0.0348 and 0.0491). Immunofluorescent staining showed nuclear location of filaggrin on D0 and cytoplasmic on D6. ANOVA showed increased cell size from D0 to D6 in both groups (effect of time, p = 0.0076) but no differences between groups. Significant subject effect (p = 0.0022) was found, indicating that cell size was subject-dependent but not disease-dependent. No difference for continuity for TJ protein existed between groups. These observations suggest that decreased TEER in atopics is not linked to TJ differences but is possibly linked to different growth behavior.

Enhanced In Vitro Expression of Filaggrin and Antimicrobial Peptides Following Application of Glycosaminoglycans and a Sphingomyelin-Rich Lipid Extract

Filaggrin is an epidermal protein involved in skin barrier formation and hydration, whose expression is altered in canine atopic dermatitis (CAD). CAD patients also present an abnormal immune response with an altered expression of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), such as β-defensins and cathelicidins. Sphingolipids and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been reported to improve the skin barrier in several animal species, including dogs. Our objective was to evaluate the in vitro effects of a sphingomyelin-rich lipid extract (LE), a hyaluronic acid-rich GAG matrix, and their combination, on the expression of filaggrin and human β-defensin 2 (hBD-2). Filaggrin expression was quantified in a reconstructed human epidermis (RHE), and hBD-2 in normal human epidermal keratinocyte (NHEK) cultures. LE and GAGs were tested at 0.02 mg/mL, with or without adding a cytokine mix. A significant increase in mean hBD-2, compared to the control (99 pg/mL) was achieved with LE (138 pg/mL) and LE+GAGs (165 pg/mL). Filaggrin increased with GAGs (202% ± 83) and LE (193% ± 44) vs. the stimulated control, but this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05) only with LE+GAGs (210% ± 39). In conclusion, the tested GAGs and LE enhance filaggrin and AMP expression in vitro, which might benefit CAD patients if applied in vivo.

Transient and reversible reduction of stratum corneum filaggrin degradation products after allergen challenge in experimentally mite-sensitised atopic dogs

BACKGROUND

A defective skin barrier occurs in dogs with atopic dermatitis, and there is controversy over whether this defect pre-exists, or is secondary to allergic inflammation.

OBJECTIVES

To study if an allergen challenge decreases the natural moisturising factor (NMF), which contains the main filaggrin degradation products.

ANIMALS

Four house dust mite (HDM)-sensitised adult atopic dogs from a research colony.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Dogs were challenged epicutaneously with HDMs on the right lateral abdomen while the left thorax served as control. We swabbed the skin surface before, and at days (D)1, D2, D3, D7 and D28 after challenge, on both selected sites; swabs were soaked in detergent and frozen until assayed. The NMF components were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS).

RESULTS

The allergen challenge induced moderate skin lesions at the application sites, and also mild erythema at the control areas. The allergen provocation led to significant decreases in the total NMF and its components trans-urocanic acid (t-UCA), pyrrolidone carboxylic acid (PCA) and serine on both sites. Lesion scores abated by D7 and the NMF concentrations had re-increased by D28. Skin lesion scores correlated negatively with the total NMF, t-UCA and PCA concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

In this experimental model, a single epicutaneous allergen challenge led to a transient and reversible decrease in skin surface NMF and its components, and concentrations were negatively correlated with skin lesion scores. These observations suggest that some of the skin barrier anomalies seen in atopic dogs likely develop secondarily to the underlying cutaneous allergic inflammation.

Localization and genotyping of canine papillomavirus in canine inverted papillomas

Numerous canine papillomaviruses (CPVs) have been identified (CPV1-23). CPV1, 2, and 6 have been associated with inverted papillomas (IPs). We retrieved 19 IPs from 3 histopathology archives, and evaluated and scored koilocytes, inclusion bodies, giant keratohyalin granules, cytoplasmic pallor, ballooning degeneration, and parakeratosis. IHC targeting major capsid proteins of PV was performed, and CPV genotyping was achieved by PCR testing. Tissue localization of CPV DNA and RNA was studied by chromogenic and RNAscope in situ hybridization (DNA-CISH, RNA-ISH, respectively). IPs were localized to the limbs (50%), trunk (30%), and head (20%), mainly as single nodules (16 of 19). In 15 of 19 cases, immunopositivity was detected within the nuclei in corneal and subcorneal epidermal layers. PCR revealed CPV1 in 11 IPs and CPV2 DNA in 3 IPs. Overall, 14 of 17 cases were positive by both DNA-CISH and RNA-ISH, in accord with PCR results. A histologic score >5 was always obtained in cases in which the viral etiology was demonstrated by IHC, DNA-CISH, and RNA-ISH. IHC and molecular approaches were useful to ascertain the viral etiology of IPs. Although IHC is the first choice for diagnostic purposes, ISH testing allows identification of PV type and the infection phase. RNA-ISH seems a promising tool to deepen our understanding of the pathogenesis of different PV types in animal species.

Atopic Dermatitis in Domestic Animals: What Our Current Understanding Is and How This Applies to Clinical Practice

Atopic dermatitis is a clinical syndrome that affects both people and animals. Dogs closely mimic the complexity of the human skin disease, and much progress has been made in recent years in terms of our understanding of the role of skin impairment and the identification of new treatments. Cats and horses also develop atopic syndromes which include both cutaneous and respiratory signs, yet studies in these species are lagging. It is now recognized that atopic dermatitis is not a single disease but a multifaceted clinical syndrome with different pathways in various subgroups of patients. Appreciating this complexity is clinically relevant as we develop more targeted treatments which may work well in some patients but not in others. Different phenotypes of atopic dermatitis have been described in dogs, and it is possible that phenotypes related to breed and age may exist in other animals similar to how they are described in people. The awareness of different mechanisms of disease leads to the desire to correlate different phenotypes with specific biomarkers and responses to treatment. In this review, the current understanding and updated information on atopic syndrome in animals are described, highlighting opportunities for further studies in the future.

Expression of barrier proteins in the skin lesions and inflammatory cytokines in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of atopic dogs

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is one of the most common skin diseases of dogs. Defects in the skin barrier and overproduction of inflammatory cytokines may be the pathogenesis of canine AD. Therefore, the present study was aimed to quantify the gene expression of certain skin barrier proteins and inflammatory cytokines in dogs with AD. Eleven dogs with AD and three healthy dogs were included in the present study. The skin barrier proteins, namely Filaggrin (FLG) and Involucrin (IVL), gene expression was quantified by Real-time PCR in the lesional skin tissues of the atopic dogs and normal skin of the healthy dogs. In addition to the skin proteins, the gene expressions of the interleukin (IL)-13, IL-31, and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α were also quantified in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of these dogs. Compared to the healthy dogs, significantly higher (P ≤ 0.01) FLG gene expression and significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower expression of the IVL gene were quantified in the skin of atopic dogs. Further, the dogs with AD revealed significantly higher expression of TNF-α (P ≤ 0.01), IL-31 (P ≤ 0.05), and IL-13 (P ≤ 0.05) as compared to the healthy dogs. The findings of our present study evidently suggest significantly increased and decreased expressions of FLG and IVL genes, respectively, which may be responsible for disruption of the skin barrier in dogs with AD. While, the over-expressions of TNF-α, IL-31, and IL-13 genes might be attributed to the clinical pathology and manifestations of AD in dogs. However, further studies are warranted to substantiate our hypothesis about pathogenesis and clinical manifestation of AD in dogs by including a large number of animals.

Evaluation of the cutaneous expression of IL-17, IL-22, IL-31, and their receptors in canine atopic dermatitis

Interleukins (IL)-17, IL-22, and IL-31 play roles in human atopic dermatitis (AD), but scant information is available on canine AD. Histopathological assessment for interleukin expression is a challenge due to a lack of canine specific antibodies. To evaluate the mRNA and protein expression of IL-17 and IL-22, and mRNA expression of IL-31 and their receptors in the skin of healthy and atopic dogs, seventeen atopic (10 with and 7 without an active infection) and 13 healthy privately owned dogs were sampled. RNAscope® In situ hybridization (ISH) for IL-17, IL-22, IL-31, and their receptors was performed on archived canine skin samples. Simultaneously, indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) was performed for IL-17 and IL-22. RNAscope® ISH probes were validated by RT-PCR and RNAscope® ISH on cytospin preparations of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from atopic dogs. IL-17, IL-22, IL-31, and their receptors were successfully detected by RNAscope® ISH and by IIF (IL-17 and IL-22) in both atopic and healthy canine skin. There was no significant difference in the expression of interleukins and their receptors between healthy and atopic skin with or without active infection. Data from both methodologies were similar. The role and the relationship among those proteins in atopic skin is unclear from this study results. Data from IIF and ISH were overlapping and support each other. Fresh skin samples taken at different times during the development of atopic dermatitis might better assess the role that interleukins and their receptors play in AD.

Advances in our understanding of canine atopic dermatitis

Canine atopic dermatitis (cAD) is a genetically inherited clinical syndrome that encompasses a diversity of mechanisms and can have a variety of triggers. Development of clinical disease is the result of genetic factors and environmental conditions, which shape the resulting immunological response. Clinical disease becomes evident once a threshold of inflammatory response is achieved. Skin barrier impairment plays a role in promoting cutaneous dysbiosis and increased allergen penetration. Keratinocytes shape the response of dendritic cells and subsequent lymphocytic response. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is one of the links between the damaged skin barrier and the modulation of a T-helper (Th)2 response. It is still unclear whether mutations in skin barrier genes exist in atopic dogs, as they do in humans, or whether the observed alterations are purely secondary to inflammation. A dysregulated immune response with increased Th2, Th17 and CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells has been reported. A variety of cytokines [interleukin(IL)-31, IL-34, Macrophage migration inhibitory factor] are proposed as potential biomarkers and treatment targets because they are increased in the serum of atopic dogs when compared to controls, although a correlation between serum levels of these factors and severity of disease is not always present. The main issue with many published studies is that atopic dogs are always only compared to normal controls. Thus, it is unclear whether the changes that we find are truly a signature of cAD or merely a manifestation of nonspecific broad inflammatory responses. Studies considering comparison with other inflammatory diseases different from cAD are urgently needed to correctly identify what is specific to this complicated syndrome.

Update on canine filaggrin: a review

Human filaggrin (FLG) plays a key role in epidermal barrier function, and loss-of-function mutations of its gene are primarily responsible for the development of human atopic dermatitis (AD). FLG expression is also reduced in the epidermis of atopic patients, due to the transcriptional effect of Th2 type cytokines. Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) is a prevalent skin disease that shares many clinical and pathogenic features with its human homologue. The aim of this review is discuss current knowledge on canine filaggrin (Flg) in both healthy and atopic dogs, as compared to the human protein. Although the molecular structures of the two proteins, as deduced from the sequences of their gene, are different, their sites of expression and their proteolytic processing in the normal epidermis are similar. Concerning the expression of Flg in CAD, conflicting results have been published at the mRNA level and little accurate information is available at the protein level. It derives from a large precursor, named profilaggrin (proFLG), formed by several FLG units and stored in keratohyalin granules of the stratum granulosum. Canine and human proFLG sequences display little amino acid similarity (33% as shown using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST)) except at the level of the S100 homologous part of the N-terminus (75%). Genetic studies in the dog are at an early stage and are limited by the variety of breeds and the small number of cases included. Many questions remain unanswered about the involvement of Flg in CAD pathogenesis.

Characterization of canine epidermal organoid cultures by immunohistochemical analysis and quantitative PCR

BACKGROUND

Keratinocyte organoids can be used as a tool to evaluate epidermal structure, function and dysfunction.

OBJECTIVES

To optimize the canine keratinocyte organoid system and produce organoids that are structurally equivalent to in vivo canine epidermis, in order to enable studies that focus on epidermal diseases and diseases resulting from an impaired epidermal barrier.

ANIMALS

Skin biopsies were obtained from five recently euthanized dogs of different breeds with no skin abnormalities.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Cells derived from microdissected interfollicular epidermis were seeded in basement membrane extract and epidermal organoids were grown under different media conditions. Organoids were characterized to assess cell morphology and architecture in haematoxylin and eosin-stained slides and expression of selected epidermal markers (keratin 5, keratin 10, loricrin and filaggrin) by immunohistochemical analysis and quantitative reverse transcription PCR.

RESULTS

The selected epidermal markers were expressed in the same epidermal layers in the organoids cultured in expansion medium and differentiation medium as in normal interfollicular epidermis, yet restriction to the distinct layers was best achieved with expansion medium. Comparison of the mRNA expression levels of these markers revealed that relative expression is similar in organoids cultured in expansion medium and normal canine epidermis, while it differs in organoids cultured in differentiation medium.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Organoids cultured in expansion medium have an equivalent structure to the interfollicular epidermis and express key marker proteins in similar proportions. Epidermal organoids are therefore a promising in vitro model to study epidermal structure, function and dysfunction.

The Effect of Atopic Dermatitis and Diet on the Skin Transcriptome in Staffordshire Bull Terriers

Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) has a hereditary basis that is modified by interactions with the environment, including diet. Differentially expressed genes in non-lesional skin, determined by RNA sequencing before and after a dietary intervention, were compared between dogs with naturally occurring CAD (n = 4) and healthy dogs (n = 4). The dogs were fed either a common commercial heat-processed high carbohydrate food (kibble diet) (n = 4), or a non-processed high fat food (raw meat-based diet) (n = 4). At the end of the diet intervention, 149 differentially expressed transcripts were found between the atopic and healthy dogs. The main canonical pathways altered by the dysregulation of these genes were angiopoietin signaling, epidermal growth factor signaling, activation of angiogenesis, and alterations in keratinocyte proliferation and lipid metabolism. On the other hand, 33 differently expressed transcripts were found between the two diet groups, of which 8 encode genes that are annotated in the current version of the dog genome: immunoglobulin heavy constant mu (IGHM), immunoglobulin lambda-like polypeptide 5 (IGLL5), B-cell antigen receptor complex-associated protein beta chain (CD79B), polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (PIGR), cystathionine β-synthase (CBS), argininosuccinate synthase 1 (ASS1), secretory leukocyte peptidase inhibitor (SLPI), and mitochondrial ribosome recycling factor (MRRF). All genes were upregulated in the raw diet group. In conclusion the findings of this study suggest alterations in lipid and keratinocyte metabolism as well as angiogenesis in the skin of atopic dogs. Additionally, a possible enhancement of innate immunity and decrease in oxidative stress was seen in raw food fed dogs, which could have an important role in preventing hypersensitivities and disturbed immunity at young age.

Elevated circulating Th2 but not group 2 innate lymphoid cell responses characterize canine atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is an allergic skin disease that causes significant morbidity and affects multiple species. AD is highly prevalent in companion dogs, and the clinical management of the disease remains challenging. An improved understanding of the immunologic and genetic pathways that lead to disease could inform the development of novel treatments. In allergic humans and mouse models of AD, the disease is associated with Th2 and group 2 innate lymphoid cell (ILC2) activation that drives type 2 inflammation. Type 2 inflammation also appears to be associated with AD in dogs, but gaps remain in our understanding of how key type 2-associated cell types such as canine Th2 cells and ILC2s contribute to the pathogenesis of canine AD. Here, we describe previously uncharacterized canine ILC2-like cells and Th2 cells ex vivo that produced type 2 cytokines and expressed the transcription factor Gata3. Increased circulating Th2 cells were associated with chronic canine AD. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed a unique gene expression signature in T cells in dogs with AD. These findings underline the importance of pro-allergic Th2 cells in orchestrating AD and provide new methods and pathways that can inform the development of improved therapies.

Refined Immunochemical Characterization in Healthy Dog Skin of the Epidermal Cornification Proteins, Filaggrin, and Corneodesmosin

Filaggrin (FLG) and corneodesmosin (CDSN) are two key proteins of the human epidermis. FLG loss-of-function mutations are the strongest genetic risk factors for human atopic dermatitis. Studies of the epidermal distribution of canine FLG and CDSN are limited. Our aim was to better characterize the distribution of FLG and CDSN in canine skin. Using immunohistochemistry on beagle skin, we screened a series of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific for human FLG and CDSN. The cross-reactive mAbs were further used using immunoelectron microscopy and Western blotting. The structure of canine CDSN and FLG was determined using publicly available databases. In the epidermis, four anti-FLG mAbs stained keratohyalin granules in the granular keratinocytes and corneocyte matrix of the lower cornified layer. In urea-extracts of dog epidermis, several bands corresponding to proFLG and FLG monomers were detected. One anti-CDSN mAb stained the cytoplasm of granular keratinocytes and cells of both the inner root sheath and medulla of hair follicles. Dog CDSN was located in lamellar bodies, in the extracellular parts of desmosomes and in corneodesmosomes. A protein of 52 kDa was immunodetected. Genomic DNA analysis revealed that the amino acid sequence and structure of canine and human CDSN were highly similar.

Single blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled study on the effects of ciclosporin on cutaneous barrier function and immunological response in atopic beagles

Ciclosporin (CsA) is a common treatment for canine atopic dermatitis (cAD). cAD is a very common skin disease with a multifactorial pathogenesis due to complex interactions between the host and the environment. The purpose of this study was to describe the physical and immunological effects of CsA in cAD using a canine model of AD. Fourteen beagles were enrolled; seven received CsA orally every 24 h for 28 days, and seven received placebo. All dogs were exposed to relevant allergens, house dust mite solution, one day prior to treatment and once weekly thereafter for 28 consecutive days. Canine atopic dermatitis extent and severity index-03 (CADESI-03) and skin biopsies were performed on day 0, 14, and 28. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to determine levels of cutaneous cytokines and barrier function markers. Indirect immunofluorescence was used to determine protein expression and distribution of nuclear messengers, barrier function and inflammatory [thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP)] markers. The data were tested for normality and then the upaired two samples Student's t-test and the repeated measurements ANOVA, followed by the Dunnett's Multiple Comparison Test as post-hoc analysis, were performed. A P value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. A significant decrease in CADESI-03 occurred for the treatment group compared to placebo (p = 0.023) on day 28. On day 14, a significant increase in TSLP protein expression [p = 0.019 (placebo); p = 0.02 (CsA)] and a significant decrease in Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)-β mRNA [p = 0.01 (placebo); p = 0.015 (CsA)] were noted in both groups compared to baseline. On day 28, a significant increase in canine beta defensin (cBD)103 [p = 0.012 (placebo)] and cBD3-like mRNAs [p = 0.044 (placebo)], and filaggrin [p = 0.035 (CsA)] and TSLP protein expressions [p = 0.0092 (CsA)] were seen compared to baseline. In contrast, a significant decrease in mRNA of Tumor Necrosis factor (TNF)-α [p = 0.013 (CsA)], Interleukin (IL)-10 [p = 0.038 (CsA)], TGF-β [p = 0.017 (CsA)], and caspase 14 [p = 0.014 (CsA)] was seen on day 28 compared to baseline. Comparison of the groups revealed no significant effect on skin immunologic milieu or barrier markers despite evident improvement of physical signs in the treatment group. Although this study confirmed the usefulness of CsA for the treatment of cAD, a clear involvement of CsA on some of the currently known immunological alterations present in cAD was not determined. However, it is important to note that there was no measurable exacerbation of skin barrier dysfunction secondary to CsA administration in this model.

Atopic Dermatitis in Animals and People: An Update and Comparative Review

Atopic dermatitis is an extremely common, pruritic, and frustrating disease to treat in both people and animals. Atopic dermatitis is multifactorial and results from complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. Much progress has been done in recent years in terms of understanding the complex pathogenesis of this clinical syndrome and the identification of new treatments. As we learn more about it, we appreciate the striking similarities that exist in the clinical manifestations of this disease across species. Both in animals and people, atopic disease is becoming increasingly common and important similarities exist in terms of immunologic aberrations and the propensity for allergic sensitization. The purpose of this review is to highlight the most recent views on atopic dermatitis in both domestic species and in people emphasizing the similarities and the differences. A comparative approach can be beneficial in understanding the natural course of this disease and the variable response to existing therapies.

Multiple regulatory variants located in cell type-specific enhancers within the PKP2 locus form major risk and protective haplotypes for canine atopic dermatitis in German shepherd dogs

Background

Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease triggered by allergic reactions involving IgE antibodies directed towards environmental allergens. We previously identified a ~1.5 Mb locus on canine chromosome 27 associated with CAD in German shepherd dogs (GSDs). Fine-mapping indicated association closest to the PKP2 gene encoding plakophilin 2.

Results

Additional genotyping and association analyses in GSDs combined with control dogs from five breeds with low-risk for CAD revealed the top SNP 27:19,086,778 (p = 1.4 × 10⁻⁷) and a rare ~48 kb risk haplotype overlapping the PKP2 gene and shared only with other high-risk CAD breeds. We selected altogether nine SNPs (four top-associated in GSDs and five within the ~48 kb risk haplotype) that spanned ~280 kb forming one risk haplotype carried by 35 % of the GSD cases and 10 % of the GSD controls (OR = 5.1, p = 5.9 × 10⁻⁵), and another haplotype present in 85 % of the GSD cases and 98 % of the GSD controls and conferring a protective effect against CAD in GSDs (OR = 0.14, p = 0.0032). Eight of these SNPs were analyzed for transcriptional regulation using reporter assays where all tested regions exerted regulatory effects on transcription in epithelial and/or immune cell lines, and seven SNPs showed allelic differences. The DNA fragment with the top-associated SNP 27:19,086,778 displayed the highest activity in keratinocytes with 11-fold induction of transcription by the risk allele versus 8-fold by the control allele (p_difference = 0.003), and also mapped close (~3 kb) to an ENCODE skin-specific enhancer region.

Conclusions

Our experiments indicate that multiple CAD-associated genetic variants located in cell type-specific enhancers are involved in gene regulation in different cells and tissues. No single causative variant alone, but rather multiple variants combined in a risk haplotype likely contribute to an altered expression of the PKP2 gene, and possibly nearby genes, in immune and epithelial cells, and predispose GSDs to CAD.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12863-016-0404-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of sphingolipid extracts on the morphological structure and lipid profile in an in vitro model of canine skin

Ceramides (CER) are essential sphingolipids of the stratum corneum (SC) that play an important role in maintaining cutaneous barrier function. Skin barrier defects occur in both human beings and dogs affected with atopic dermatitis, and have been associated with decreased CER concentrations and morphological alterations in the SC. The aim of the present study was to investigate the changes induced by three different sphingolipid extracts (SPE-1, SPE-2 and SPE-3) on the morphological structure and lipid composition of canine skin, using an in vitro model, whereby keratinocytes were seeded onto fibroblast-embedded collagen type I matrix at the air-liquid interface. Cell cultures were supplemented with SPE-1, SPE-2, SPE-3 or vehicle (control) for 14 days. The relative concentrations of lipids were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The ultrastructural morphology of samples was examined by transmission electron microscopy. SPE-1 induced significant elevation in total CERs, CER[NS], CER[NDS], CER[NP], CER[AS], CER[AP], CER[EOS] and CER[EOP] subclasses, whereas SPE-2 induced a significant elevation in total CER, CER[AP] and CER[EOS] compared with control conditions. Ultrastructural analysis revealed an increase in lamellar-lipid structures in the SC of SPE-1-treated samples. The findings demonstrated that SPE-1 stimulates production of CERs, as shown by changes in lipid composition and ultrastructural morphology. Thus, SPE-1 contributes to the formation of a well-organised SC and represents a potential therapeutic target for improving skin barrier function in atopic dermatitis.

Decreased expression of caspase-14 in an experimental model of canine atopic dermatitis

Alterations in skin barrier function and filaggrin expression have been reported in atopic dermatitis (AD). Caspase-14, a protease important for filaggrin processing, is decreased in human AD. Atopic Beagle dogs with skin barrier alterations have been validated as model for AD. This study aimed to investigate caspase-14 in normal and atopic Beagle dogs. Skin biopsies from non-lesional and control skin were analyzed for caspase-14 by immunofluorescence. Six images/sections were blindly scored for intensity. Data were tested with unpaired Student's t test. A P value of <0.05 was considered significant. Caspase-14 was decreased in atopic compared to normal skin both quantitatively (P <0.001) and qualitatively (P = 0.006; agreement = 0.93; consistency = 0.94). In conclusion, caspase-14 is decreased in this model similarly to reports in humans, highlighting the relevance of filaggrin metabolic defects in AD.

What is living on your dog's skin? Characterization of the canine cutaneous mycobiota and fungal dysbiosis in canine allergic dermatitis

To characterize the skin-associated fungal microbiota (mycobiota) in dogs, and to evaluate the influence of body site, individual dog or health status on the distribution of fungi, next-generation sequencing was performed targeting the internal transcribed spacer region. A total of 10 dogs with no history of skin disease were sampled at 10 distinct body sites consisting of haired and mucosal skin, and 8 dogs with diagnosed skin allergies were sampled at six body sites commonly affected by allergic disease. Analysis of similarities revealed that body site was not an influencing factor on membership or structure of fungal communities in healthy skin; however, the mucosal sites were significantly reduced in fungal richness. The mycobiota from body sites in healthy dogs tended to be similar within a dog, which was visualized in principle coordinates analysis (PCoA) by clustering of all sites from one dog separate from other dogs. The mycobiota of allergic skin was significantly less rich than that of healthy skin, and all sites sampled clustered by health status in PCoA. Interestingly, the most abundant fungi present on canine skin, across all body sites and health statuses, were Alternaria and Cladosporium—two of the most common fungal allergens in human environmental allergies.

The skin-associated fungal microbiota were characterized in healthy dogs and those with skin allergies using next-generation sequencing, and the authors identified significant influences of the dog and health status on the distribution and diversity of fungal communities.

An update on the treatment of canine atopic dermatitis

Canine atopic dermatitis is a common skin disease seen in veterinary clinical practice. Several factors appear to contribute to the cutaneous inflammation and pruritus. The therapeutic strategy should focus on control of those factors that can be identified and for which interventional measures are feasible; these include ectoparasites, bacterial/fungal infection and dietary hypersensitivity. Ectoparasites, particularly fleas, are not the cause of atopic dermatitis, but they are a confounding factor, which can exacerbate pruritus, and preventative measures are therefore indicated. Bacterial and yeast infections are frequently associated with atopic dermatitis and initial systemic and/or topical therapy should be considered, followed by regular topical treatment for preventing relapse. Concurrent dietary hypersensitivity should be investigated by undertaking an elimination/provocation trial, followed by feeding of a hypoallergenic diet where appropriate. Depending on the severity of the clinical signs of atopic dermatitis and the willingness and expectations of owners, symptomatic treatment and/or specific interventional therapy for environmental allergy (allergen avoidance, allergen-specific immunotherapy) may be implemented. Symptomatic treatment includes use of glucocorticoids (systemically or topically), ciclosporin and oclacitinib. Other treatment modalities of lower or less proven efficacy include antihistamines, dextromethorphan, fatty acids, feline interferon-omega, misoprostol, pentoxifylline, specific serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressant drugs. The therapeutic approach should be reviewed at regular intervals and tailored to the individual's needs. A successful long-term outcome can usually be achieved by combining the various treatment approaches in a way that maximises their benefits and minimises their drawbacks.