1
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Fonseca M, Heider LC, Stryhn H, McClure JT, Léger D, Rizzo D, Warder L, Dufour S, Roy JP, Kelton DF, Renaud D, Barkema HW, Sanchez J. Antimicrobial use and its association with the isolation of and antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter spp. recovered from fecal samples from Canadian dairy herds: A cross-sectional study. Prev Vet Med 2023; 215:105925. [PMID: 37104967 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.105925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Campylobacteriosis is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in North America. As opposed to humans, animal infections caused by Campylobacter spp. are often asymptomatic. In this study, data collected through the Canadian Dairy Network for Antimicrobial Stewardship surveillance system were used to determine the proportion of Campylobacter spp. and antimicrobial resistant isolates recovered from dairy cattle herds. Additionally, the association of antimicrobial use (AMU) with fecal carriage and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Campylobacter spp. were investigated. Pooled fecal samples from 5 animals from each production phase (pre-weaned calves, post-weaned heifers, lactating cows), and a manure storage sample were collected from 140 dairy herds across Canada. Samples were cultured using selective media, and Campylobacter isolates were speciated using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial susceptibilities were determined using the minimum inhibitory concentration test, and interpretation was made according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Two multilevel logistic regression models were used to investigate the association between the AMU with the isolation and antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter spp. Of 560 samples, 63.8% were positive for Campylobacter spp., and 96% of the participating farms had at least one sample source (i.e., calves, heifers, lactating cows, or manure storage) positive for Campylobacter spp. Overall, 54.3% of the Campylobacter spp. isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. Resistance to tetracycline was observed in 49.7% of the Campylobacter spp. isolates, followed by ciprofloxacin (19.9%) and nalidixic acid (19.3%). The proportion of multi-drug resistant (≥3 antimicrobial classes) Campylobacter spp. isolates was low (0.3%); however, 15.6% were resistant to two different classes of antimicrobials. Samples collected from lactating cows, heifers, and manure storage were more likely to be positive for Campylobacter spp. compared to calves. Total AMU was associated with a decreased probability of recovering Campylobacter spp. In addition, AMR to either tetracycline or ciprofloxacin had an interaction with antimicrobial use. The probability of resistance to tetracycline increased for each unit increase in the total AMU (Defined Course Dose/100 animal-years), while the probability of resistance to ciprofloxacin decreased. Campylobacter coli isolates were more likely to be resistant to ciprofloxacin and tetracycline when compared to C. jejuni. Our study demonstrated that Campylobacter spp. is widespread among Canadian dairy farms, and a higher proportion of resistance to tetracycline was identified. The total AMU was associated with increased resistance to tetracycline in Campylobacter spp. isolates; however, for ciprofloxacin the AMU was associated with decreased resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Fonseca
- Department of Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada.
| | - Luke C Heider
- Department of Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - Henrik Stryhn
- Department of Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - J Trenton McClure
- Department of Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - David Léger
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Center for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Daniella Rizzo
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Center for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Landon Warder
- Department of Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - Simon Dufour
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe Roy
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - David F Kelton
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - David Renaud
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | | | - Javier Sanchez
- Department of Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
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2
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Olvera-Ramírez AM, McEwan NR, Stanley K, Nava-Diaz R, Aguilar-Tipacamú G. A Systematic Review on the Role of Wildlife as Carriers and Spreaders of Campylobacter spp. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1334. [PMID: 37106897 PMCID: PMC10135385 DOI: 10.3390/ani13081334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter spp. are important zoonotic pathogens and can cause one of the main bacterial diarrheal diseases worldwide. Research in the context of infection arising from transmission from other humans and other vertebrates has been extensive. A large fraction of these investigations has focused on domestic animals; however, there are also a number of publications which either totally, or at least in part, consider the role of wild or feral animals as carriers or spreaders of Campylobacter spp. Here, we carry out a systematic review to explore the role played by wild vertebrates as sources of Campylobacter spp. with a compilation of prevalence data for more than 150 species including reptiles, mammals and birds. We found that numerous vertebrate species can act as carriers of Campylobacter species, but we also found that some host specificity may exist, reducing the risk of spread from wildlife to domestic animals or humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Margarita Olvera-Ramírez
- Cuerpo Académico Salud Animal y Microbiología Ambiental, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Avenida de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, Delegación Santa Rosa Jáuregui, Querétaro C.P. 76230, Mexico
| | - Neil Ross McEwan
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK
| | - Karen Stanley
- Department of Biosciences and Chemistry, Sheffield Hallam University City Campus, Howard Street, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK
| | - Remedios Nava-Diaz
- Posdoctoral CONACyT Program, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Avenida de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, Delegación Santa Rosa Jáuregui, Querétaro C.P. 76230, Mexico
| | - Gabriela Aguilar-Tipacamú
- Cuerpo Académico Salud Animal y Microbiología Ambiental, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Avenida de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, Delegación Santa Rosa Jáuregui, Querétaro C.P. 76230, Mexico
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3
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Vogt NA, Hetman BM, Pearl DL, Vogt AA, Reid-Smith RJ, Parmley EJ, Janecko N, Bharat A, Mulvey MR, Ricker N, Bondo KJ, Allen SE, Jardine CM. Using whole-genome sequence data to examine the epidemiology of Salmonella, Escherichia coli and associated antimicrobial resistance in raccoons (Procyon lotor), swine manure pits, and soil samples on swine farms in southern Ontario, Canada. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260234. [PMID: 34793571 PMCID: PMC8601536 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To better understand the contribution of wildlife to the dissemination of Salmonella and antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella and Escherichia coli, we examined whole-genome sequence data from Salmonella and E. coli isolates collected from raccoons (Procyon lotor) and environmental sources on farms in southern Ontario. All Salmonella and phenotypically resistant E. coli collected from raccoons, soil, and manure pits on five swine farms as part of a previous study were included. We assessed for evidence of potential transmission of these organisms between different sources and farms utilizing a combination of population structure assessments (using core-genome multi-locus sequence typing), direct comparisons of multi-drug resistant isolates, and epidemiological modeling of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes and plasmid incompatibility (Inc) types. Univariable logistic regression models were fit to assess the impact of source type, farm location, and sampling year on the occurrence of select resistance genes and Inc types. A total of 159 Salmonella and 96 resistant E. coli isolates were included. A diversity of Salmonella serovars and sequence types were identified, and, in some cases, we found similar or identical Salmonella isolates and resistance genes between raccoons, soil, and swine manure pits. Certain Inc types and resistance genes associated with source type were consistently more likely to be identified in isolates from raccoons than swine manure pits, suggesting that manure pits are not likely a primary source of those particular resistance determinants for raccoons. Overall, our data suggest that transmission of Salmonella and AMR determinants between raccoons and swine manure pits is uncommon, but soil-raccoon transmission appears to be occurring frequently. More comprehensive sampling of farms, and assessment of farms with other livestock species, as well as additional environmental sources (e.g., rivers) may help to further elucidate the movement of resistance genes between these various sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine A. Vogt
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Benjamin M. Hetman
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - David L. Pearl
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Adam A. Vogt
- Independent Researcher, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard J. Reid-Smith
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - E. Jane Parmley
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicol Janecko
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Amrita Bharat
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Michael R. Mulvey
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Nicole Ricker
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kristin J. Bondo
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha E. Allen
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Laramie, Wyoming, United States of America
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, United States of America
| | - Claire M. Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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4
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Jahan NA, Lindsey LL, Larsen PA. The Role of Peridomestic Rodents as Reservoirs for Zoonotic Foodborne Pathogens. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2021; 21:133-148. [PMID: 33351736 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2020.2640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Although rodents are well-known reservoirs and vectors for a number of zoonoses, the functional role that peridomestic rodents serve in the amplification and transmission of foodborne pathogens is likely underappreciated. Clear links have been identified between commensal rodents and outbreaks of foodborne pathogens throughout Europe and Asia; however, comparatively little research has been devoted to studying this relationship in the United States. In particular, regional studies focused on specific rodent species and their foodborne pathogen reservoir status across the diverse agricultural landscapes of the United States are lacking. We posit that both native and invasive species of rodents associated with food-production pipelines are likely sources of seasonal outbreaks of foodborne pathogens throughout the United States. In this study, we review the evidence that identifies peridomestic rodents as reservoirs for foodborne pathogens, and we call for novel research focused on the metagenomic communities residing at the rodent-agriculture interface. Such data will likely result in the identification of new reservoirs for foodborne pathogens and species-specific demographic traits that might underlie seasonal enteric disease outbreaks. Moreover, we anticipate that a One Health metagenomic research approach will result in the discovery of new strains of zoonotic pathogens circulating in peridomestic rodents. Data resulting from such research efforts would directly inform and improve upon biosecurity efforts, ultimately serving to protect our food supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nusrat A Jahan
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Laramie L Lindsey
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Peter A Larsen
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
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5
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Kelley BR, Lu J, Haley KP, Gaddy JA, Johnson JG. Metal homeostasis in pathogenic Epsilonproteobacteria: mechanisms of acquisition, efflux, and regulation. Metallomics 2021; 13:mfaa002. [PMID: 33570133 PMCID: PMC8043183 DOI: 10.1093/mtomcs/mfaa002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epsilonproteobacteria are a diverse class of eubacteria within the Proteobacteria phylum that includes environmental sulfur-reducing bacteria and the human pathogens, Campylobacter jejuni and Helicobacter pylori. These pathogens infect and proliferate within the gastrointestinal tracts of multiple animal hosts, including humans, and cause a variety of disease outcomes. While infection of these hosts provides nutrients for the pathogenic Epsilonproteobacteria, many hosts have evolved a variety of strategies to either sequester metals from the invading pathogen or exploit the toxicity of metals and drive their accumulation as an antimicrobial strategy. As a result, C. jejuni and H. pylori have developed mechanisms to sense changes in metal availability and regulate their physiology in order to respond to either metal limitation or accumulation. In this review, we will discuss the challenges of metal availability at the host-pathogen interface during infection with C. jejuni and H. pylori and describe what is currently known about how these organisms alter their gene expression and/or deploy bacterial virulence factors in response to these environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittni R Kelley
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Jacky Lu
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Kathryn P Haley
- Department of Biology, Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Jennifer A Gaddy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Tennessee Valley Healthcare Systems, Department of Veterans Affairs, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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6
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Vogt NA, Pearl DL, Taboada EN, Mutschall SK, Bondo KJ, Jardine CM. Epidemiology of Campylobacter jejuni in raccoons (Procyon lotor) on swine farms and in conservation areas in southern Ontario. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 68:19-28. [PMID: 33226196 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Campylobacter is a leading cause of foodborne illness in humans worldwide. Sources of infection are often difficult to identify, and are, generally, poorly understood. Recent work suggests that wildlife may represent a source of Campylobacter for human infections. Using a repeated cross-sectional study design, raccoons were trapped on five swine farms and five conservation areas in southern Ontario from 2011 to 2013. Our objectives were to: (a) assess the impact of seasonal, climatic, location, annual and raccoon demographic factors on the occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni in these animals; and (b) identify clusters of C. jejuni in space, time and space-time using spatial scan statistics. Multi-level multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the odds of isolating C. jejuni, with site and animal modelled as random intercepts. The following independent variables were examined: raccoon age and sex, year, location type, season, temperature and rainfall. A total of 1,096 samples were obtained from 627 raccoons; 46.3% were positive for C. jejuni. The following interactions and their main effects were significant (p < .05) and retained in the final model: season × temperature, year × rainfall, year × temperature. Based on the results from our multivariable model and spatial scan statistics, climatic variables (i.e. rainfall, temperature and season) were associated with the carriage of C. jejuni by raccoons, but the effects were not consistent, and varied by location and year. Although raccoons may pose a zoonotic risk due to their carriage of Campylobacter, further work is required to characterize the transmission and movement of this microorganism within the ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine A Vogt
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - David L Pearl
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Eduardo N Taboada
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Steven K Mutschall
- National Centre for Animal Diseases, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Kristin J Bondo
- Department of Natural Resources Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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7
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Mutschall SK, Hetman BM, Bondo KJ, Gannon VPJ, Jardine CM, Taboada EN. Campylobacter jejuni Strain Dynamics in a Raccoon ( Procyon lotor) Population in Southern Ontario, Canada: High Prevalence and Rapid Subtype Turnover. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:27. [PMID: 32118057 PMCID: PMC7026257 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Free-ranging wildlife are increasingly recognized as potential reservoirs of disease-causing Campylobacter species such as C. jejuni and C. coli. Raccoons (Procyon lotor), which live at the interface of rural, urban, and more natural environments, are ideal subjects for exploring the potential role that wildlife play in the epidemiology of campylobacteriosis. We studied the prevalence and genetic diversity of Campylobacter from live-captured raccoons on five swine farms and five conservation areas in southwest Ontario. From 2011 to 2013, we collected fecal swabs (n = 1,096) from raccoons, and (n = 50) manure pit samples from the swine farm environment. We subtyped the resulting Campylobacter isolates (n = 581) using Comparative Genomic Fingerprinting (CGF) and 114 distinct subtypes were observed, including 96 and 18 subtypes among raccoon and manure pit isolates, respectively. Campylobacter prevalence in raccoons was 46.3%, with 98.7% of isolates recovered identified as C. jejuni. Novel raccoon-specific CGF subtypes (n = 40/96) accounted for 24.6% (n = 143/581) of Campylobacter isolates collected in this study. Our results also show that C. jejuni is readily acquired and lost in this wild raccoon population and that a high Campylobacter prevalence is observed despite transient carriage typically lasting 30 days or fewer. Moreover, although raccoons appeared to be colonized by species-adapted subtypes, they also harbored agriculture-associated genotypes that accounted for the majority of isolates observed (66.4%) and that are strongly associated with human infections. This suggests that raccoons may act as vectors in the transmission of clinically-relevant C. jejuni subtypes at the interface of rural, urban, and more natural environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven K Mutschall
- National Centre for Animal Diseases, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Benjamin M Hetman
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Kristin J Bondo
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Victor P J Gannon
- National Microbiology Laboratory at Lethbridge, Public Health Agency of Canada, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Eduardo N Taboada
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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8
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Bondo KJ, Pearl DL, Janecko N, Reid-Smith RJ, Parmley EJ, Weese JS, Rousseau J, Taboada E, Mutschall S, Jardine CM. Salmonella, Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, and anti-microbial resistant Escherichia coli in the faeces of sympatric meso-mammals in southern Ontario, Canada. Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 66:406-416. [PMID: 30985994 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The role of free-ranging wildlife in the epidemiology of enteropathogens causing clinical illness in humans and domestic animals is unclear. Salmonella enterica and anti-microbial resistant bacteria have been detected in the faeces of raccoons (Procyon lotor), but little is known about the carriage of these bacteria in other sympatric meso-mammals. Our objectives were to: (a) report the prevalence of Salmonella and associated anti-microbial resistance, Campylobacter spp, Clostridium difficile, and anti-microbial resistant Escherichia coli in the faeces of striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) in southern Ontario; and (b) compare the prevalence of these bacteria in the faeces of these meso-mammal hosts with raccoons from a previously reported study. Faecal swabs were collected from striped skunks and Virginia opossums on five swine farms and five conservation areas from 2011 to 2013. Salmonella was detected in 41% (9/22) and 5% (5/95) of faecal swabs from Virginia opossums and striped skunks, respectively. None of the Salmonella serovars carried resistance to anti-microbials. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp., C. difficile, and anti-microbial resistant E. coli ranged from 6% to 22% in striped skunk and Virginia opossums. Using exact logistic regression, Salmonella was significantly more likely to be detected in faecal swabs of Virginia opossums than skunks and significantly less likely in faecal swabs from skunks than raccoons from a previously reported study. In addition, Campylobacter spp. was significantly more likely to be detected in raccoons than opossums. Salmonella Give was detected in 8/9 (89%) of Salmonella-positive Virginia opossum faecal swabs. Our results suggest that striped skunks and Virginia opossums have the potential to carry pathogenic enteric bacteria in their faeces. The high prevalence of Salmonella Give in Virginia opossum faecal swabs in this study as well as its common occurrence in other Virginia opossum studies throughout North America suggests Virginia opossums may be reservoirs of this serovar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin J Bondo
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - David L Pearl
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicol Janecko
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard J Reid-Smith
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - E Jane Parmley
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - J Scott Weese
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joyce Rousseau
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eduardo Taboada
- National Microbiology Laboratory at Lethbridge, Public Health Agency of Canada, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Steven Mutschall
- National Microbiology Laboratory at Lethbridge, Public Health Agency of Canada, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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