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Modelling Female Physiology from Head to Toe: Impact of Sex Hormones, Menstrual Cycle, and Pregnancy. J Theor Biol 2022; 540:111074. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2022.111074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Stadt M, Layton AT. Adaptive Changes in single-nephron GFR, Tubular Morphology, and Transport in a Pregnant Rat Nephron: Modeling and Analysis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2021; 322:F121-F137. [PMID: 34894726 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00264.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Normal pregnancy is characterized by massive increases in plasma volume and electrolyte retention. Given that the kidneys regulate homeostasis of electrolytes and volume, the organ undergoes major adaptations in morphology, hemodynamics, and transport to achieve the volume and electrolyte retention required in pregnancy. These adaptations are complex, sometimes counterintuitive, and not fully understood. In addition, the demands of the developing fetus and placenta change throughout the pregnancy. For example, during late pregnancy, K+ retention and thus enhanced renal K+ reabsorption is required despite many kaliuretic factors. The goal of this study is to unravel how known adaptive changes along the nephrons contribute to the ability of the kidney to meet volume and electrolyte requirements in mid- and late pregnancy. We developed computational models of solute and water transport in the superficial nephron of the kidney of a rat in mid- and late pregnancy. The mid-pregnant and late-pregnant rat superficial nephron models predict that morphological adaptations and increased activity of the sodium hydrogen exchanger 3 (NHE3) and epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) are essential for enhanced Na+ reabsorption observed during pregnancy. Model simulations showed that for sufficient K+ reabsorption, increased H +-K +-ATPase activity and decreased K+ secretion along the distal segments is required in both mid- and late-pregnancy. Furthermore, certain known sex differences in renal transporter pattern (e.g., the higher NHE3 protein abundance but lower activity in the proximal tubules of virgin female rats compared to male) may serve to better prepare the female for the increased transport demand in pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Stadt
- Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anita T Layton
- Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biology, Cheriton School of Computer Science, and School of Pharmacology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
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West CA, Beck SD, Masilamani SM. Time course of renal sodium transport in the pregnant rat. Curr Res Physiol 2021; 4:229-234. [PMID: 34988469 PMCID: PMC8710989 DOI: 10.1016/j.crphys.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Progressive sodium retention and cumulative plasma volume expansion occur to support the developing fetus during pregnancy. Sodium retention is regulated by individual tubular transporters and channels. An increase or decrease in any single transporter could cause a change in sodium balance. Understanding the time-course for changes in each sodium transporter during pregnancy will enable us to understand progressive sodium retention seen in pregnancy. Here, we examined the activity of the major apical sodium transporters found in the nephron using natriuretic response tests in virgin, early pregnant, mid-pregnant, and late pregnant rats. We also measured renal and serum aldosterone levels. We found that furosemide sensitive sodium transport (NKCC2) is only increased during late pregnancy, thiazide sensitive sodium transport (NDCBE/pendrin) is increased in all stages of pregnancy, and that benzamil sensitive sodium transport (ENaC) is increased beginning in mid-pregnancy. We also found that serum aldosterone levels progressively increased throughout gestation and kidney tissue aldosterone levels increased only during late pregnancy. Here we have shown progressive turning on of specific sodium transport mechanisms to help support progressive sodium retention through the course of gestation. These mechanisms contribute to the renal sodium retention and plasma volume expansion required for an optimal pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal A. West
- Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis, NC, USA
| | - Steven D. Beck
- Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis, NC, USA
| | - Shyama M.E. Masilamani
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center, Richmond, VA, USA
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Hu R, McDonough AA, Layton AT. Sex differences in solute and water handling in the human kidney: Modeling and functional implications. iScience 2021; 24:102667. [PMID: 34169242 PMCID: PMC8209279 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The kidneys maintain homeostasis by controlling the amount of water and electrolytes in the blood. That function is accomplished by the nephrons, which transform glomerular filtrate into urine by a transport process mediated by membrane transporters. We postulate that the distribution of renal transporters along the nephron is markedly different between men and women, as recently shown in rodents. We hypothesize that the larger abundance of a renal Na+ transport in the proximal tubules in females may also better prepare them for the fluid retention adaptations required during pregnancy and lactation. Also, kidneys play a key role in blood pressure regulation, and a popular class of anti-hypertensive medications and angiotensin converting enzymes (ACE) inhibitors have been reported to be less effective in women. Model simulations suggest that the blunted natriuretic and diuretic effects of ACE inhibition in women can be attributed, in part, to their higher distal baseline transport capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Hu
- Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Alicia A. McDonough
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Anita T. Layton
- Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
- Department of Biology, Cheriton School of Computer Science, and School of Pharmacology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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West DA, Beck SD, de Souza AMA, West CA. Proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) on blood pressure and electrolyte handling in the late pregnant rat. Exp Physiol 2021; 106:1373-1379. [PMID: 33866617 DOI: 10.1113/ep088170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the central question of this study? Pregnancy requires marked renal sodium and potassium retention and cumulative plasma volume expansion, in the setting of reduced blood pressure. Research in male rodents has shown that activation of PAR2 can produce peripheral vasodilatation, stimulate renal sodium chloride reabsorption and inhibit renal potassium secretion. Here, we investigate PAR2 activation in virgin and normal pregnant rats. What is the main finding and its importance? PAR2 expression and sensitivity to activation are increased in pregnancy. This implicates a possible role for PAR2 in supporting the renal/vascular adaptations of pregnancy required for normal maternal plasma volume expansion. ABSTRACT A healthy pregnancy involves renal and systemic haemodynamic adaptations, which allow renal sodium and potassium retention and cumulative plasma volume expansion, accompanied by a decline in blood pressure attributable to a reduction in the total peripheral vascular resistance. When these adaptations do not occur, pregnancy is compromised. The mechanisms permitting these opposing adaptations are largely unknown. Research in male rodents has shown that activation of PAR2 can produce peripheral vasodilatation, stimulate renal sodium chloride reabsorption and inhibit renal potassium secretion. Here, we investigate PAR2 activation in female virgin and normal late pregnant (LP) rats. We measured the mRNA expression of PAR2 in the renal cortex, outer medulla and inner medulla of virgin and LP rats using quantitative real-time PCR. We also measured in vivo blood pressure, natriuretic and kaliuretic responses to PAR2-activating peptide (SLIGRL-NH2 ) in anaesthetized virgin and LP rats. We found that PAR2 mRNA was increased in the inner medulla of LP rats. We also found that LP rats had larger decreases in blood pressure and increases in net sodium retention compared with virgin rats. These findings suggest that pregnancy enhances sensitivity to the blood pressure-lowering and sodium-retaining effects of PAR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A West
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Steven D Beck
- Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
| | - Aline M A de Souza
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Crystal A West
- Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
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Walter C, Rafael C, Lasaad S, Baron S, Salhi A, Crambert G. H,K-ATPase type 2 regulates gestational extracellular compartment expansion and blood pressure in mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2020; 318:R320-R328. [PMID: 31913688 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00067.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The modifications of the hemodynamic system and hydromineral metabolism are physiological features characterizing a normal gestation. Thus, the ability to expand plasma volume without increasing the level of blood pressure is necessary for the correct perfusion of the placenta. The kidney is essential in this adaptation by reabsorbing avidly sodium and fluid. In this study, we observed that the H,K-ATPase type 2 (HKA2), an ion pump expressed in kidney and colon and already involved in the control of the K+ balance during gestation, is also required for the correct plasma volume expansion and to maintain normal blood pressure. Indeed, compared with WT pregnant mice that exhibit a 1.6-fold increase of their plasma volume, pregnant HKA2-null mice (HKA2KO) only modestly expand their extracellular volume (×1.2). The renal expression of the epithelial Na channel (ENaC) α- and γ-subunits and that of the pendrin are stimulated in gravid WT mice, whereas the Na/Cl- cotransporter (NCC) expression is downregulated. These modifications are all blunted in HKA2KO mice. This impeded renal adaptation to gestation is accompanied by the development of hypotension in the pregnant HKA2KO mice. Altogether, our results showed that the absence of the HKA2 during gestation leads to an "underfilled" situation and has established this transporter as a key player of the renal control of salt and potassium metabolism during gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Walter
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Paris Cité Université, Université Paris Descartes, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, ERL 8228, Laboratoire de Physiologie Rénale et Tubulopathies, Paris, France
| | - Chloé Rafael
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Paris Cité Université, Université Paris Descartes, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, ERL 8228, Laboratoire de Physiologie Rénale et Tubulopathies, Paris, France
| | - Samia Lasaad
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Paris Cité Université, Université Paris Descartes, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, ERL 8228, Laboratoire de Physiologie Rénale et Tubulopathies, Paris, France
| | - Stéphanie Baron
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Paris Cité Université, Université Paris Descartes, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, ERL 8228, Laboratoire de Physiologie Rénale et Tubulopathies, Paris, France.,Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Laboratoire de Physiologie, Paris, France
| | - Amel Salhi
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Paris Cité Université, Université Paris Descartes, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, ERL 8228, Laboratoire de Physiologie Rénale et Tubulopathies, Paris, France
| | - Gilles Crambert
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Paris Cité Université, Université Paris Descartes, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, ERL 8228, Laboratoire de Physiologie Rénale et Tubulopathies, Paris, France
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Abdulnour‐Nakhoul S, Hering‐Smith K, Hamm LL, Nakhoul NL. Effects of chronic hypercapnia on ammonium transport in the mouse kidney. Physiol Rep 2019; 7:e14221. [PMID: 31456326 PMCID: PMC6712239 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypercapnia and subsequent respiratory acidosis are serious complications in many patients with respiratory disorders. The acute response to hypercapnia is buffering of H+ by hemoglobin and cellular proteins but this effect is limited. The chronic response is renal compensation that increases HCO3- reabsorption, and stimulates urinary excretion of titratable acids (TA) and NH4+ . However, the main effective pathway is the excretion of NH4+ in the collecting duct. Our hypothesis is that, the renal NH3 /NH4+ transporters, Rhbg and Rhcg, in the collecting duct mediate this response. The effect of hypercapnia on these transporters is unknown. We conducted in vivo experiments on mice subjected to chronic hypercapnia. One group breathed 8% CO2 and the other breathed normal air as control (0.04% CO2 ). After 3 days, the mice were euthanized and kidneys, blood, and urine samples were collected. We used immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis to determine the effects of high CO2 on localization and expression of the Rh proteins, carbonic anhydrase IV, and pendrin. In hypercapnic animals, there was a significant increase in urinary NH4+ excretion but no change in TA. Western blot analysis showed a significant increase in cortical expression of Rhbg (43%) but not of Rhcg. Expression of CA-IV was increased but pendrin was reduced. These data suggest that hypercapnia leads to compensatory upregulation of Rhbg that contributes to excretion of NH3 /NH4+ in the kidney. These studies are the first to show a link among hypercapnia, NH4+ excretion, and Rh expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solange Abdulnour‐Nakhoul
- Section of Nephrology, Departments of Medicine and PhysiologyTulane University School of MedicineNew OrleansLouisiana
| | - Kathleen Hering‐Smith
- Section of Nephrology, Departments of Medicine and PhysiologyTulane University School of MedicineNew OrleansLouisiana
| | - L. Lee Hamm
- Section of Nephrology, Departments of Medicine and PhysiologyTulane University School of MedicineNew OrleansLouisiana
| | - Nazih L. Nakhoul
- Section of Nephrology, Departments of Medicine and PhysiologyTulane University School of MedicineNew OrleansLouisiana
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Renal ion transport undergoes dramatic changes during the course of gestation. These adaptations are necessary to meet the dynamic requirements of pregnancy and support fetal development. Pregnancy is characterized by a high demand for both sodium and potassium. Recently there has been work in the field profiling the modifications of the renal tubules in pregnancy to meet these demands. The purpose of this review is to summarize these findings. RECENT FINDINGS The work to date suggests an important role for the distal nephron in both the renal sodium and potassium reabsorption during pregnancy. There is strong evidence that renal sodium reabsorption is mediated by the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). Whereas renal potassium reabsorption is mediated by upregulation of potassium retaining transporters (HKA2) and downregulation of potassium secreting channels (ROMK, BK). SUMMARY Fetal growth restriction and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy including preeclampsia are marked by suboptimal maternal plasma volume expansion, which is determined by renal electrolyte handling. Therefore, understanding the physiologic demand for sodium and potassium in pregnancy and the adaptations required to support these needs is necessary for the effective treatment of diseased states of pregnancy.
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West CA, Welling PA, West DA, Coleman RA, Cheng KY, Chen C, DuBose TD, Verlander JW, Baylis C, Gumz ML. Renal and colonic potassium transporters in the pregnant rat. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2018; 314:F251-F259. [PMID: 29046297 PMCID: PMC5866449 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00288.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Revised: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Gestational potassium retention, most of which occurs during late pregnancy, is essential for fetal development. The purpose of this study was to examine mechanisms underlying changes in potassium handling by the kidney and colon in pregnancy. We found that potassium intake and renal excretion increased in late pregnancy while fecal potassium excretion remained unchanged and that pregnant rats exhibited net potassium retention. By quantitative PCR we found markedly increased H+-K+-ATPase type 2 (HKA2) mRNA expression in the cortex and outer medullary of late pregnant vs. virgin. Renal outer medullary potassium channel (ROMK) mRNA was unchanged in the cortex, but apical ROMK abundance (by immunofluorescence) was decreased in pregnant vs. virgin in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and connecting tubule (CNT). Big potassium-α (BKα) channel-α protein abundance in intercalated cells in the cortex and outer medullary collecting ducts (by immunohistochemistry) fell in late pregnancy. In the distal colon we found increased HKA2 mRNA and protein abundance (Western blot) and decreased BKα protein with no observed changes in mRNA. Therefore, the potassium retention of pregnancy is likely to be due to increased collecting duct potassium reabsorption (via increased HKA2), decreased potassium secretion (via decreased ROMK and BK), as well as increased colonic reabsorption via HKA2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal A West
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columiba
| | - Paul A Welling
- Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
| | - David A West
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columiba
| | - Richard A Coleman
- Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Kit-Yan Cheng
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Chao Chen
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Thomas D DuBose
- Department of Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Jill W Verlander
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Chris Baylis
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Michelle L Gumz
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
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Anuk AT, Kose S, Fırat C, Ozer E, Altunyurt S. Pendrin Expression in Preeclampsia: A Prospective Immunohistochemical Staining Study on Placental Bed Biopsies. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 2017; 36:364-372. [PMID: 28949777 DOI: 10.1080/15513815.2017.1346016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION To assess the pendrin expression density in placental bed biopsies from preeclampsia cases in comparison with healthy term controls. MATERIAL AND METHODS A prospective case-control study with 106 placental bed biopsies obtained during cesarean deliveries. Pendrin expression was evaluated by immunohistochemical staining in different hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. RESULTS Pendrin immunostaining frequency was higher in the hypertensive disorders group (p: 0.024), which was a result of the high frequency in the early-onset preeclampsia group. Uterine artery pulsatility indices were higher in pendrin positive patients than in the negatives in the case group. Gravidity was not found to affect the pendrin expression frequency in the placental bed. CONCLUSION Placental ischemia seems to be an important determinant of pendrin expression in pregnant decidua. Increased pendrin density in early-onset preeclampsia could be a pathogenetic mechanism in or a part of the adaptational response to the development of the hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali T Anuk
- a Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Dokuz Eylul University School of Medicine , Balcova, Izmir , Turkey
| | - Semir Kose
- b Division of Perinatology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Dokuz Eylul University School of Medicine , Balcova, Izmir , Turkey
| | - Canan Fırat
- c Department of Medical Pathology , Dokuz Eylul University School of Medicine , Balcova, Izmir , Turkey
| | - Erdener Ozer
- c Department of Medical Pathology , Dokuz Eylul University School of Medicine , Balcova, Izmir , Turkey
| | - Sabahattin Altunyurt
- b Division of Perinatology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Dokuz Eylul University School of Medicine , Balcova, Izmir , Turkey
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West CA, Sasser JM, Baylis C. The enigma of continual plasma volume expansion in pregnancy: critical role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2016; 311:F1125-F1134. [PMID: 27707703 PMCID: PMC6189751 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00129.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy is characterized by avid renal sodium retention and plasma volume expansion in the presence of decreased blood pressure. Decreased maternal blood pressure is a consequence of reduced systemic vascular tone, which results from an increased production of vasodilators [nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandins, and relaxin] and decreased vascular responsiveness to the potent vasoconstrictor (angiotensin II). The kidneys participate in this vasodilatory response, resulting in marked increases in renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) during pregnancy. In women, sodium retention drives plasma volume expansion (∼40%) and is necessary for perfusion of the growing uterus and fetus. For there to be avid sodium retention in the presence of the potent natriuretic influences of increased NO and elevated GFR, there must be modifications of the tubules to prevent salt wasting. The purpose of this review is to summarize these adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal A West
- Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia;
| | - Jennifer M Sasser
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi; and
| | - Chris Baylis
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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