Interactions between hypoxia, acetylcholine and dopamine in the carotid body of rabbit and cat

The hypoxic ventilatory response and TRPA1 antagonism in conscious mice

AIM

Recently, TRPA1 channels, richly expressed in both peripheral and central neural systems, have been proposed as novel sensors of changes in oxygen concentration along the hypoxic-hyperoxic continuum. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that TRPA1 channels blockade should profoundly affect the hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR).

METHODS

We examined the chemosensory ventilatory responses in conscious mice before and after intraperitoneal administration of the specific TRPA1 antagonist HC-030031 in two doses of 50 and 200 (cumulative dose 250) mg kg(-1) . Ventilation and its responses to mild 13% and severe 7% hypoxia, pure O2 , and 5% CO2 in O2 were recorded in a whole-body plethysmograph.

RESULTS

TRPA1 antagonism caused a dose-dependent attenuation of the HVR. Ventilatory stimulation was virtually abrogated in response to the mild, but it remained viable, albeit slashed, at severe hypoxia after the bigger dose of HC-030031. The TRPA1 function seemed specific for the hypoxic chemoreflex as neither the response to pure O2 nor hypercapnia was appreciably influenced by the TRPA1 antagonist.

CONCLUSIONS

The study unravelled the role of TRPA1 in shaping the ventilatory response to low-intensity hypoxia, liable to be mediated by vagally innervated respiratory chemosensors of lower functional rank, but contradicted the TRPA1 being indispensable for the powerful carotid body chemoreflex in face of a severe hypoxic threat.

Regulation of phospholipase C activity by calcium ions and guanine nucleotide in the normoxic cat carotid body

The carotid bodies (CB) are a paired chemoreceptor organ located at the bifurcation of the common carotid arteries. High O2 tension suppresses while low tension activates afferent carotid chemoreceptor activity and the chemoreflex ventilatory response in the cat. The intracellular mechanism of chemotransduction is till now unknown. Previously we have shown different activities of phospholipase C (PLC) in normoxic, hypoxic and hyperoxic cat carotid body. Now we have addressed the question whether calcium ions and G-protein could be regulators of the formation of lipid derived messenger molecules in the cat carotid body. To answer this question, the PLC acting against [3H] inositol-phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) and [3H] inositol-phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] in the cat CB were investigated using labelled phospholipids as a source of the substrate. CB homogenate was used as a source of the enzyme. The results indicate that PLC acting on PtdIns is Ca2+-dependent, in contrary to that acting on PtdIns(4,5)P2 which remains active in the presence of 10 mM EGTA. PtdIns(4,5)P2-PLC is stimulated by GTPgammaS. In the presence of Ca2+, GTPgammaS has a synergistic stimulatory effect. PLC acting on PtdIns is not activated by GTPgammaS. In the presence of calcium ions dopamine and a nonhydrozylable analogue of acetylcholine, carbachol, have a small stimulatory effect of about 30% on PLC acting on PtdIns(4,5)P2. GTPgammaS enhances this effect. These results allow us to suggest that there are two pathways of phosphoinositides degradation in the CB, one of them is regulated by calcium ions/PtdIns-PLC/, the other one by G-protein / PtdIns(4,5)P2-PLC/.

Experimental study of the detrimental effect of dopamine/glucagon combination in d,l-propranolol intoxication

1. Respiratory and cardiovascular failure are the principle toxic effects of beta-blocker overdose. Respiratory arrest is the primary cause of death in beta-blocker intoxicated rats. 2. The effect of glucagon, dopamine and the combination of glucagon/dopamine on respiratory and cardiovascular function and survival time in beta-blocker overdose was investigated in a model of acute d,l-propranolol (resp. 30 and 15 mg kg-1 h-1 in rat and rabbit) intoxication in spontaneously breathing rats and artificially ventilated rats and rabbits. 3. Glucagon (initial dose of 100 micrograms kg-1 (bolus), followed by 1 microgram kg-1 min-1), dopamine (25 micrograms kg-1 min-1) or the combination of glucagon/dopamine did not improve survival time (ST) in d,l-propranolol intoxicated spontaneously breathing rats and artificially ventilated rats and rabbits, although some haemodynamic variables i.e. heart rate (HR), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), left ventricular pressure (LVPmax) and the differentiated left ventricular pressure (LVdp/dtmax) temporarily improved. 4. Survival time was considerably reduced in d,l-propranolol intoxicated spontaneously breathing and artificially ventilated rats treated with a combination of glucagon/dopamine, which induced a decrease in PaO2 and pH and an increase in PaCO2 partly due to ventilation/perfusion mismatch. 5. The combination of glucagon/dopamine should be used carefully in the treatment of beta-blocker overdose in man.

Developmental changes in hypoxia-induced catecholamine release from rat carotid body, in vitro

1. Developmental changes in free tissue catecholamine levels were studied using Nafion-coated, carbon fibre electrodes placed in rat carotid bodies, in vitro. Simultaneously, single fibre chemoreceptor afferent activity was recorded from the sinus nerve. Five age groups were examined: 1, 2, 6, 10 and 20-30 days of age. 2. Using fast-scan voltammetry, similar current peaks were observed during exposure to exogenous dopamine and during superfusion with hypoxic saline. This suggests that changes in carbon fibre electrode current are due to an increase in free tissue catecholamines. 3. Baseline catecholamine levels were significantly less in the 1-6 day age groups compared to 10 day and 20-30 day rats. 4. During 1 min of hypoxia the peak concentration of tissue catecholamine was significantly less in the 1 day compared to the 2 day age groups, and these were less than in 10 day and 20-30 day rats. 5. Peak nerve response during hypoxia increased with age from 4.5 +/- 0.6 Hz in the 1 day to 10.5 +/- 1.6 Hz in the 6 day and to 15.5 +/- 2.2 Hz in the 20-30 day rats. 6. We conclude that (1) resting free tissue catecholamine levels increase with age in the newborn period, (2) hypoxia causes enhanced catecholamine release, and (3) the magnitude of the release increases in the postnatal period as does the nerve activity.

Effects of almitrine on the release of catecholamines from the rabbit carotid body in vitro

1. Almitrine increases ventilation by stimulating the carotid body (CB) arterial chemoreceptors but neither its intraglomic target nor its mechanism of action have been elucidated. 2. We have tested the hypothesis that chemoreceptor cells are targets for almitrine by studying its effects on the release of 3H-catecholamines in an in vitro rabbit CB preparation. 3. It was found that almitrine (0.3 and 1.5 x 10(-6) M; i.e. 0.2 and 1 mg ml-1) increases the resting release of 3H-catecholamines from CBs (previously loaded with [3H]-tyrosine) incubated in a balanced 95% O2/5% CO2-equilibrated solution. 4. Almitrine at a concentration of 3 x 10(-6) M (2 mg l-1) also augmented the release of 3H-catecholamines elicited by incubating the CBs in a hypoxic solution (equilibrated with 7% O2/5% CO2 in N2), by high external K+ (35 mM) and by veratridine (2 x 10(-5) M), but did not modify release induced by dinitrophenol (7.5 x 10(-5) M). 5. At the same concentration (3 x 10(-6) M), almitrine increased the rate of dopamine synthesis and was ineffective in modifying the cyclic AMP levels in either normoxic or hypoxic CBs. 6. It is concluded that chemoreceptor cells are the intraglomic targets for almitrine. The mechanisms of action of almitrine on chemoreceptor cells are discussed.

Carotid body chemoreceptor response to prolonged hypoxia in the rabbit: effects of domperidone and propranolol

1. The discharge of single afferent chemoreceptor fibres was recorded from the cut sinus nerve over periods of 60 or 90 min of constant, isocapnic hypoxia (arterial O2 pressure, Pa,O2, 3.13-5.25 kPa), in twenty anaesthetized rabbits, after dividing the sympathetic supply to the carotid body. 2. Under control conditions, discharge after 60 min of hypoxia adapted to a mean (S.E.M.) of 71.95 (2.75)% of that attained at 5 min of hypoxia in twenty-three hypoxic experiments. This adaptation was more pronounced when Pa,O2 was lower than 4 kPa (30 Torr). 3. Domperidone (1 mg kg-1 bolus + 1 mg kg-1 h-1 infusion I.V.), increased normoxic afferent discharge by a mean of 142%. In ten experiments, discharge after 60 min of hypoxia adapted to a mean (S.E.M.) of 56.22 (+/- 3.40)% of that attained at 5 min of hypoxia which was significantly different from control hypoxic runs (P = 0.006). 4. In seven experiments propranolol (1 mg kg-1 bolus + 1 mg kg-1 h-1 infusion I.V.) did not affect the normoxic discharge. The mean adaptation of discharge after 60 min of hypoxia was to 77.43 (3.97)% of discharge attained at 5 min of hypoxia, which was not significantly different from control hypoxic runs (P = 0.34). 5. Under control conditions plasma [K+] increased steadily during 60 min of hypoxia, in fourteen experiments, from a mean of 2.76 (0.14) to 2.85 (0.12) mmol l-1 but this was not significant (P = 0.21). Domperidone (n = 6) did not affect plasma [K+] at any time, but after propranolol (n = 6) it increased by a mean (S.E.M.) of 0.39 (0.09) mmol l-1 (P = 0.01) in normoxia and by a further 0.62 (0.28) mmol l-1 (P = 0.08) at 60 min of hypoxia. 6. The results suggest that the adaptation of chemoreceptor discharge to hypoxia in the rabbit is not mediated by changes in plasma [K+]; in addition, endogenous dopamine, but not noradrenaline, contributes to the maintenance of chemoreceptor discharge in prolonged hypoxia.

Studies on the regenerated carotid sinus nerve of the rabbit

1. The central end of the distally cut left carotid sinus nerve was sutured to the tunica media of the external carotid artery, 1 cm cranial to the carotid bifurcation, in nineteen rabbits. The carotid body was removed in fourteen of these rabbits but left in situ in the remaining five. After 56-165 days of recovery a neuroma was identified at the site of the suture. Ventilatory reflexes mediated by both sinus nerves were tested and afferent activity recorded from the regenerated nerve. 2. Ventilatory reflex responses to hypoxia and sodium cyanide were abolished on sectioning the right sinus nerve, whilst the hypercapnic response was maintained. 3. Electrical stimulation of the regenerated sinus nerve caused hypotension and hyperventilation. These responses were attenuated compared to stimulation of the right sinus nerve. 4. A level of afferent activity equivalent to that found in non-regeneration experiments was recorded from all regenerated sinus nerves. Whole-nerve afferent activity was modulated by changes in carotid sinus blood pressure but not by changes in Pa,O2, Pa,CO2 (arterial O2 and CO2 pressures) or intracarotid injection of sodium cyanide. 5. A minimum of thirty single afferent fibres was identified in each experiment, the vast majority of which were mechanoreceptors. In only nine experiments were chemoreceptor fibres found and only twelve chemoreceptor fibres (1.7% of total) were identified in these nine experiments. In ten experiments no chemoreceptor fibres could be found. Leaving the carotid body in situ increased the incidence of chemoreceptive preparations. A small number of fibres unresponsive to mechanical stimulation and asphyxia was also identified. 6. The responses of regenerated chemoreceptor fibres to physiological and pharmacological stimuli were generally similar to those found in control carotid body preparations. Fibres unresponsive to mechanical stimulation and asphyxia did not respond to sodium cyanide, dopamine or isoprenaline; some of these fibres were excited by nicotine. 7. The receptive fields of mechanosensitive fibres were localized on or up to 2 cm away from the neuroma. Surface application of 20-40 microliters sodium cyanide (200 micrograms ml-1) was used to localize the receptive fields of seven of the twelve chemoreceptor fibres. All seven were localized to the site of the carotid body. 8. The neuroma and site of the carotid body were examined under light and electron microscopy. Glomus tissue was absent from the neuroma but was found at the site of the carotid body. 9. In conclusion, recovery of chemoreceptor function after carotid sinus nerve section appears to be associated with reinnervation of glomus tissue.