On the effect of muscle activity on the end-plate membrane in denervated mouse muscle

BDNF/TrkB signalling, in cooperation with muscarinic signalling, retrogradely regulates PKA pathway to phosphorylate SNAP-25 and Synapsin-1 at the neuromuscular junction

BACKGROUND

Protein kinase A (PKA) enhances neurotransmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), which is retrogradely regulated by nerve-induced muscle contraction to promote Acetylcholine (ACh) release through the phosphorylation of molecules involved in synaptic vesicle exocytosis (SNAP-25 and Synapsin-1). However, the molecular mechanism of the retrograde regulation of PKA subunits and its targets by BDNF/TrkB pathway and muscarinic signalling has not been demonstrated until now. At the NMJ, retrograde control is mainly associated with BDNF/TrkB signalling as muscle contraction enhances BDNF levels and controls specific kinases involved in the neurotransmission. Neurotransmission at the NMJ is also highly modulated by muscarinic receptors M1 and M2 (mAChRs), which are related to PKA and TrkB signallings. Here, we investigated the hypothesis that TrkB, in cooperation with mAChRs, regulates the activity-dependent dynamics of PKA subunits to phosphorylate SNAP-25 and Synapsin-1.

METHODS

To explore this, we stimulated the rat phrenic nerve at 1Hz (30 minutes), with or without subsequent contraction (abolished by µ-conotoxin GIIIB). Pharmacological treatments were conducted with the anti-TrkB antibody clone 47/TrkB for TrkB inhibition and exogenous h-BDNF; muscarinic inhibition with Pirenzepine-dihydrochloride and Methoctramine-tetrahydrochloride for M1 and M2 mAChRs, respectively. Diaphragm protein levels and phosphorylation' changes were detected by Western blotting. Location of the target proteins was demonstrated using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

While TrkB does not directly impact the levels of PKA catalytic subunits Cα and Cβ, it regulates PKA regulatory subunits RIα and RIIβ, facilitating the phosphorylation of critical exocytotic targets such as SNAP-25 and Synapsin-1. Furthermore, the muscarinic receptors pathway maintains a delicate balance in this regulatory process. These findings explain the dynamic interplay of PKA subunits influenced by BDNF/TrkB signalling, M1 and M2 mAChRs pathways, that are differently regulated by pre- and postsynaptic activity, demonstrating the specific roles of the BDNF/TrkB and muscarinic receptors pathway in retrograde regulation.

CONCLUSION

This complex molecular interplay has the relevance of interrelating two fundamental pathways in PKA-synaptic modulation: one retrograde (neurotrophic) and the other autocrine (muscarinic). This deepens the fundamental understanding of neuromuscular physiology of neurotransmission that gives plasticity to synapses and holds the potential for identifying therapeutic strategies in conditions characterized by impaired neuromuscular communication.

Synaptic retrograde regulation of the PKA-induced SNAP-25 and Synapsin-1 phosphorylation

BACKGROUND

Bidirectional communication between presynaptic and postsynaptic components contribute to the homeostasis of the synapse. In the neuromuscular synapse, the arrival of the nerve impulse at the presynaptic terminal triggers the molecular mechanisms associated with ACh release, which can be retrogradely regulated by the resulting muscle contraction. This retrograde regulation, however, has been poorly studied. At the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), protein kinase A (PKA) enhances neurotransmitter release, and the phosphorylation of the molecules of the release machinery including synaptosomal associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25) and Synapsin-1 could be involved.

METHODS

Accordingly, to study the effect of synaptic retrograde regulation of the PKA subunits and its activity, we stimulated the rat phrenic nerve (1 Hz, 30 min) resulting or not in contraction (abolished by µ-conotoxin GIIIB). Changes in protein levels and phosphorylation were detected by western blotting and cytosol/membrane translocation by subcellular fractionation. Synapsin-1 was localized in the levator auris longus (LAL) muscle by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Here we show that synaptic PKA Cβ subunit regulated by RIIβ or RIIα subunits controls activity-dependent phosphorylation of SNAP-25 and Synapsin-1, respectively. Muscle contraction retrogradely downregulates presynaptic activity-induced pSynapsin-1 S9 while that enhances pSNAP-25 T138. Both actions could coordinately contribute to decreasing the neurotransmitter release at the NMJ.

CONCLUSION

This provides a molecular mechanism of the bidirectional communication between nerve terminals and muscle cells to balance the accurate process of ACh release, which could be important to characterize molecules as a therapy for neuromuscular diseases in which neuromuscular crosstalk is impaired.

Nerve-dependent distribution of subsynaptic type 1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor at the neuromuscular junction

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) are enriched at postsynaptic membrane compartments of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), surrounding the subsynaptic nuclei and close to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) of the motor endplate. At the endplate level, it has been proposed that nerve-dependent electrical activity might trigger IP3-associated, local Ca2+ signals not only involved in excitation-transcription (ET) coupling but also crucial to the development and stabilization of the NMJ itself. The present study was undertaken to examine whether denervation affects the subsynaptic IP3R distribution in skeletal muscles and which are the underlying mechanisms. Fluorescence microscopy, carried out on in vivo denervated muscles (following sciatectomy) and in vitro denervated skeletal muscle fibers from flexor digitorum brevis (FDB), indicates that denervation causes a reduction in the subsynaptic IP3R1-stained region, and such a decrease appears to be determined by the lack of muscle electrical activity, as judged by partial reversal upon field electrical stimulation of in vitro denervated skeletal muscle fibers.

Distinct roles of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex: α-dystrobrevin and α-syntrophin in the maintenance of the postsynaptic apparatus of the neuromuscular synapse

α-syntrophin (α-syn) and α-dystrobrevin (α-dbn), two components of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, are essential for the maturation and maintenance of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and mice deficient in either α-syn or α-dbn exhibit similar synaptic defects. However, the functional link between these two proteins and whether they exert distinct or redundant functions in the postsynaptic organization of the NMJ remain largely unknown. We generated and analyzed the synaptic phenotype of double heterozygote (α-dbn+/-, α-syn+/-), and double homozygote knockout (α-dbn-/-; α-syn-/-) mice and examined the ability of individual molecules to restore their defects in the synaptic phenotype. We showed that in double heterozygote mice, NMJs have normal synaptic phenotypes and no signs of muscular dystrophy. However, in double knockout mice (α-dbn-/-; α-syn-/-), the synaptic phenotype (the density, the turnover and the distribution of AChRs within synaptic branches) is more severely impaired than in single α-dbn-/- or α-syn-/- mutants. Furthermore, double mutant and single α-dbn-/- mutant mice showed more severe exercise-induced fatigue and more significant reductions in grip strength than single α-syn-/- mutant and wild-type. Finally, we showed that the overexpression of the transgene α-syn-GFP in muscles of double mutant restores primarily the abnormal extensions of membrane containing AChRs that extend beyond synaptic gutters and lack synaptic folds, whereas the overexpression of α-dbn essentially restores the abnormal dispersion of patchy AChR aggregates in the crests of synaptic folds. Altogether, these data suggest that α-syn and α-dbn act in parallel pathways and exert distinct functions on the postsynaptic structural organization of NMJs.

Denervation-Related Neuromuscular Junction Changes: From Degeneration to Regeneration

Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are the key interface between terminal nerves and targeted muscle, which undergo degeneration during denervation periods. Denervation-related NMJs changes limits the recovery level of nerve repair strategies. Insights into mechanisms behind neuromuscular junction degeneration and regeneration, following denervation and reinnervation, are of clinical value. Developing some therapies to maintain or protect structures and functions of NMJs may contribute to a better prognosis. Here, we reviewed previous studies of NMJs focusing on the morphological, functional, and molecular changes after denervation, and if those changes can be reversed after reinnervation. Also, we reviewed about the present probable strategies that have been applied clinically or could still be studied in targeting the neuromuscular junction protection or regeneration improvement.

The Metabolic Stability of the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor at the Neuromuscular Junction

The clustering and maintenance of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) at high density in the postsynaptic membrane is a hallmark of the mammalian neuromuscular junction (NMJ). The regulation of receptor density/turnover rate at synapses is one of the main thrusts of neurobiology because it plays an important role in synaptic development and synaptic plasticity. The state-of-the-art imaging revealed that AChRs are highly dynamic despite the overall structural stability of the NMJ over the lifetime of the animal. This review highlights the work on the metabolic stability of AChRs at developing and mature NMJs and discusses the role of synaptic activity and the regulatory signaling pathways involved in the dynamics of AChRs.

Acetylcholine receptors from human muscle as pharmacological targets for ALS therapy

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons that leads to progressive paralysis of skeletal muscle. Studies of ALS have revealed defects in expression of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) in skeletal muscle that occur even in the absence of motor neuron anomalies. The endocannabinoid palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) modified the clinical conditions in one ALS patient, improving muscle force and respiratory efficacy. By microtransplanting muscle membranes from selected ALS patients into Xenopus oocytes, we show that PEA reduces the desensitization of acetylcholine-evoked currents after repetitive neurotransmitter application (i.e., rundown). The same effect was observed using muscle samples from denervated (non-ALS) control patients. The expression of human recombinant α1β1γδ (γ-AChRs) and α1β1εδ AChRs (ε-AChRs) in Xenopus oocytes revealed that PEA selectively affected the rundown of ACh currents in ε-AChRs. A clear up-regulation of the α1 subunit in muscle from ALS patients compared with that from non-ALS patients was found by quantitative PCR, but no differential expression was found for other subunits. Clinically, ALS patients treated with PEA showed a lower decrease in their forced vital capacity (FVC) over time as compared with untreated ALS patients, suggesting that PEA can enhance pulmonary function in ALS. In the present work, data were collected from a cohort of 76 ALS patients and 17 denervated patients. Our results strengthen the evidence for the role of skeletal muscle in ALS pathogenesis and pave the way for the development of new drugs to hamper the clinical effects of the disease.

Correlation of contractile function recovery with acetylcholine receptor changes in a rat muscle flap model

The aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between contractile function recovery and changes of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) in a transferred muscle flap following reinnervation. Orthotopic transfer of the gracilis muscle flap with repair of its nerve was performed bilaterally in 48 rats. The rats were randomly divided into six experimental groups based on the time intervals for assessments (1, 4, 5, 10, 20, and 30 weeks). Sixteen gracilis muscle samples from eight rats without surgery were used as the controls. In each group, muscle contractile force and weight were measured (n = 16). The AChR numbers (n = 8) and subunits (epsilon and gamma) mRNA (n = 8) were examined using [(125)I]-alpha-bungarotoxin and fluorescent quantitative-PCR. The results showed the AChR numbers in the muscle flap increased from 4 to 20 weeks after reinnervation and correlated with recovery of the tetanic contraction force. However, correlation between the increase of AChR number with the specific tension (peak contractile force normalized to wet muscle weight) was only found from 4 to 10 weeks postoperatively. The expression of gamma-subunit mRNA increased at the early period after flap transfer and then decreased rapidly, whereas the epsilon-subunit mRNA recovered gradually since fourth week postoperatively. A small amount of gamma-subunit mRNA could still be detected at 30 weeks after surgery. In conclusion, following reinnervation of the transferred muscle flap, the contractile functional recovery is partially correlated to increase of the AChRepsilon. Our findings may provide evidence for further study of improving muscle function in functional reconstruction by targeting the AChR.

The dynamics of recycled acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction in vivo

At the peripheral neuromuscular junction (NMJ), a significant number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) recycle back into the postsynaptic membrane after internalization to intermingle with not-yet-internalized ;pre-existing' AChRs. However, the way in which these receptor pools are maintained and regulated at the NMJ in living animals remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that recycled receptors in functional synapses are removed approximately four times faster than pre-existing receptors, and that most removed recycled receptors are replaced by new recycled ones. In denervated NMJs, the recycling of AChRs is significantly depressed and their removal rate increased, whereas direct muscle stimulation prevents their loss. Furthermore, we show that protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors cause the selective accumulation of recycled AChRs in the peri-synaptic membrane without affecting the pre-existing AChR pool. The inhibition of serine/threonine phosphatases, however, has no effect on AChR recycling. These data show that recycled receptors are remarkably dynamic, and suggest a potential role for tyrosine dephosphorylation in the insertion and maintenance of recycled AChRs at the postsynaptic membrane. These findings may provide insights into long-term recycling processes at less accessible synapses in the central nervous system in vivo.

Qualitative and quantitative changes in acetylcholine receptor distribution at the neuromuscular junction following free muscle transfer

The qualitative and quantitative changes in acetylcholine receptor distribution were studied in the gracilis muscle of the Wistar rat following free neurovascular transfer. Even at 30 weeks after transfer, the morphology of the neuromuscular junction failed to return to the presurgical state. The number of acetylcholine receptors at the reinnervated neuromuscular junction also remained lower than the control. The persistent weakness following free neurovascular muscle transfer may be attributed to these qualitative and quantitative changes at the neuromuscular junction.

Morphological changes in the triads and sarcoplasmic reticulum of rat slow and fast muscle fibres following denervation and immobilization

We observed the morphological features of the membrane systems (sarcoplasmic reticulum, transverse tubules and triads) involved with the excitation-contraction coupling in rat soleus and extensor digitorum longus muscle following two disuse protocols: denervation and immobilization. The immobilized positions were: maximum dorsal flexor (soleus were stretched and extensor digitorum longus were shortened), maximum plantar flexor (soleus were shortened and extensor digitorum longus were stretched), and midway between the dorsal flexor and plantar flexor. The arrangement of the membrane systems was disordered following both disuse conditions. Increases in transverse tubule network were apparent; there were clearly more triads than in normal fibres, and pentadic and heptadic structures (i.e., a close approximation of two or three transverse tubule elements with three or four elements of terminal cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum) were frequently appeared following both denervation and immobilization. The most notable difference between the influence of denervation and immobilization on the membrane systems is the time at which the pentads and heptads appeared. They appeared much earlier (1 week after denervation) in denervated than in immobilized (3 or 4 weeks after immobilization) muscle fibres. On the other hand, the frequency of pentads and heptads is clearly related to the fibre type (significantly higher in extensor digitorum longus) and to extent of atrophy. The different influences of immobilization in each leg position suggest that disuse, but with neurotrophic factor(s), influences on the membrane systems were affected by sarcomere length, and the neurotrophic factor(s) and muscle activity were not always necessary to form new membrane systems in disuse skeletal muscle fibres.

Anti-agrin staining is absent at abandoned synaptic sites of frog neuromuscular junctions

The neuromuscular junction is a plastic structure and is constantly undergoing changes as the nerve terminals that innervate the muscle fiber extend and retract their processes. In vivo observations on developing mouse neuromuscular junctions revealed that prior to the retraction of a nerve terminal the acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) under that nerve terminal disperse. Agrin is a protein released by nerve terminals that binds to synaptic basal lamina and directs the aggregation of AChRs and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in and on the surface of the myotube. Thus, if the AChRs under a nerve terminal disperse, then the cellular signaling mechanism by which agrin maintains the aggregation of those AChRs, must have been disrupted. Two possibilities that could lead to the disruption of the agrin induced aggregation are that agrin is present at the synaptic basal lamina but is unable to direct the aggregation of AChRs, or that agrin has been removed from the synaptic basal lamina. Thus, if agrin were blocked, one would expect to see anti-agrin staining at abandoned synaptic sites; whereas if agrin were removed, anti-agrin staining would be absent at abandoned synaptic sites. We find that anti-agrin staining and alpha-bungarotoxin staining are absent at abandoned synaptic sites. Further, in vivo observations of retracting nerve terminals confirm that agrin is removed from the synaptic basal lamina within 7 days. Thus, while agrin will remain bound to synaptic basal lamina for months following denervation, it is removed within days following synaptic retraction.

Number of junctional acetylcholine receptors: control by neural and muscular influences in the rat

1. The number of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) per neuromuscular junction in soleus muscles of adult rats was estimated from counts of 125I-alpha-bungarotoxin binding sites. The muscles were either denervated, denervated and electrically stimulated, paralysed by botulinum toxin (BoTX), or paralysed by tetrodotoxin (TTX). 2. After denervation, the number of junctional AChRs was normal after 18 days and then fell to 54 and 35% of normal after 33 and 57 days, respectively. 3. Direct high frequency muscle stimulation (100 Hz) maintained a normal number of junctional AChRs for at least 2 months when the stimulation started on the day of denervation. When the stimulation was started progressively later, the effect of the stimulation on AChR number disappeared within about a week. The disappearance was gradual and appeared to affect all the muscle fibres equally. 4. Stimulation at 100 Hz, starting on the day of denervation and stopping after 18 days, did not prevent the endplates from losing AChRs during the subsequent 15 days without stimulation. Thus 100 Hz stimulation and innervation are not equivalent in their effects on junctional AChR number. 5. Direct low frequency muscle stimulation from the day of denervation did not maintain a normal number of junctional AChRs, as the number of AChRs fell to 70 and 62% of normal after 33 days of stimulation at 20 and 10 Hz, respectively. 6. Endplates paralysed by BoTX or TTX for 33 days lost about as many junctional AChRs (54 and 55%) as endplates denervated for 33 days (46%). Direct stimulation at 100 Hz during the last 15 days of BoTX treatment reduced but did not prevent this AChR loss (36% loss at 33 days). 7. The results show that when motor nerve terminals in rat soleus muscles are removed by axotomy, they leave a 'trace' which, in conjunction with appropriate muscle stimulation, can maintain a normal number of AChRs in the postsynaptic region. In non-stimulated muscles the trace responsible for this maintenance disappears within about a week. In stimulated muscles it persists for at least 2 months. From indirect evidence it appears that the trace is a factor, or the postsynaptic effect of a factor, released by impulse activity in the nerve, and that its degradation after denervation is accelerated by the acute effects of nerve degeneration.

The neuromuscular junction. Muscle fibre type differences, plasticity and adaptability to increased and decreased activity

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of adult mammalian muscle is the site of the transduction of electrical stimuli, generated by the nervous system, to the underlying muscle fibres, resulting in muscle action. It has been demonstrated that, in some ways, the morphology of the NMJ is specific to muscle fibre type. It is also known that while the structure of the NMJ generally remains stable in young, healthy adults, a subtle form of remodelling continuously occurs at this synapse. The morphology and physiology of the NMJ have been shown to adapt to both increased, and decreased use. Indeed, morphological changes of the NMJ are associated with functional alterations in neuromuscular transmission. Increased activity of the myoneural synapse results in adaptations that enhance neuromuscular transmission and, thus, muscle performance. Similarly to increased usage, decreased neuromuscular activity results in structural alterations of the NMJ. However, unlike those responses observed with enhanced activity, decreased recruitment of the myoneural synapse can impair neuromuscular transmission and muscle performance. Thus, the NMJ demonstrates both anatomical and physiological adaptations following substantial changes in its pattern of activity. These NMJ adaptations can affect the functional capacity of skeletal muscle in vivo.

Stabilization of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular synapse: the role of the nerve

The majority of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) at innervated neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are stable, with half-lives averaging about 11 days in rodent muscles. In addition to the stable AChRs, approximately 18% of AChRs at these innervated junctions are rapidly turned over (RTOs), with half lives of less than 24 h. We have postulated that RTOs may be precursors of stable AChRs, and that the motor nerve may influence their stabilization. This hypothesis was tested by: (i) labeling AChRs in mouse sternomastoid (SM) muscles with 125I-alpha-BuTx; (ii) denervating one SM muscle in each mouse, and (iii) following the fate of the labeled AChRs through a 5-day period when RTOs were either stabilized or degraded. The hypothesis predicts that denervation should preclude stabilization of RTOs, resulting in a deficit of stable AChRs in denervated muscles. The results showed a highly significant (P less than 0.002) deficit of stable AChRs in denervated as compared with innervated muscles. Control experiments excluded the possibility that this deficit could be attributed to independent accelerated degradation of either RTOs or pre-existing stable AChRs. The observed deficit was quantitatively consistent with the deficit predicted by a mathematical model based on interruption of stabilization following denervation. We conclude that: (i) the observed deficit after denervation of NMJs is due to failure of stabilization of pre-existing RTOs; (ii) RTOs at normally innervated NMJs are precursors of stable AChRs; (iii) stabilization occurs after the insertion of AChRs at NMJs, and (iv) motor nerves play a key role in stabilization of RTOs. The concept of receptor stabilization has important implications for understanding the biology of the neuromuscular junction and post-synaptic plasticity.

TTX-sensitive and TTX-insensitive sodium channel mRNA transcripts are independently regulated in adult skeletal muscle after denervation

The expression of mRNA encoding the TTX-sensitive (SkM1) and TTX-insensitive (SkM2) voltage-dependent sodium channels in adult skeletal muscle is independently regulated. In normal skeletal muscle, only the SkM1 message is expressed and the level varies with muscle fiber type. After surgical denervation, the steady-state SkM1 mRNA level declines transiently, but returns to control levels within 5 days. Expression of SkM2 transcripts is markedly activated, reaching a peak 3 days after axotomy and then declining to a maintained level at approximately 30% of peak. Chemical denervation with botulinum toxin results in higher levels of SkM2 mRNA, which by 7 days posttreatment are 7-fold greater than levels in paired axotomized muscles. SkM2 expression subsequently declines as functional reinnervation appears. Quantal acetylcholine release appears to play a major role in suppression of SkM2 expression in adult innervated or reinnervated muscle, whereas nonquantal factors in toxin-treated, but not axotomized, muscle may sustain high level SkM2 mRNA expression.

Neural factors regulate AChR subunit mRNAs at rat neuromuscular synapses

To elucidate the nature of signals that control the level and spatial distribution of mRNAs encoding acetylcholine receptor (AChR), alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta- and epsilon-subunits in muscle fibers chronic paralysis was induced in rat leg muscles either by surgical denervation or by different neurotoxins that cause disuse of the muscle or selectively block neuromuscular transmission pre- or postsynaptically and cause an increase of AChRs in muscle membrane. After paralysis, the levels and the spatial distributions of the different subunit-specific mRNAs change discoordinately and seem to follow one of three different patterns depending on the subunit mRNA examined. The level of epsilon-subunit mRNA and its accumulation at the end-plate are largely independent on the presence of the nerve or electrical muscle activity. In contrast, the gamma-subunit mRNA level is tightly coupled to innervation. It is undetectable or low in innervated normally active muscle and in innervated but disused muscle, whereas it is abundant along the whole fiber length in denervated muscle or in muscle in which the neuromuscular contact is intact but the release of transmitter is blocked. The alpha-, beta-, and delta-subunit mRNA levels show a different pattern. Highest amounts are always found at end-plate nuclei irrespective of whether the muscle is innervated, denervated, active, or inactive, whereas in extrasynaptic regions they are tightly controlled by innervation partially through electrical muscle activity. The changes in the levels and distribution of gamma- and epsilon-subunit-specific mRNAs in toxin-paralyzed muscle correlate well with the spatial appearance of functional fetal and adult AChR channel subtypes along the muscle fiber. The results suggest that the focal accumulation at the synaptic region of mRNAs encoding the alpha-, beta-, delta-, and epsilon-subunits, which constitute the adult type end-plate channel, is largely determined by at least two different neural factors that act on AChR subunit gene expression of subsynaptic nuclei.

Temporary loss of activity prevents the increase of motor unit size in partially denervated rat soleus muscles

1. The effects of temporary short-term paralysis on changes of motor unit size and amount of sprouting after partial denervation of the rat soleus were studied. 2. Two to ten months after section of the L5 ventral ramus combined with subsequent treatment with alpha-bungarotoxin (BTX) the tension developed by the operated muscle was 39 +/- 8% (S.E.M., n = 8) of control unoperated soleus muscles. This is much less than the tension produced by partially denervated, NaCl-treated or untreated muscles which was 66 +/- 9% (S.E.M., n = 5) and 66 +/- 12% (S.E.M., n = 5) respectively. The smaller tension developed by the BTX-treated muscles was due to the relatively small size of their motor units. 3. The mean increase of tension output of individual motor units after partial denervation and treatment with NaCl when compared with controls was 194 +/- 15% (S.E.M., n = 4) while in the paralysed muscle this value was only 118 +/- 15% (S.E.M., n = 8). This reduced expansion of motor unit size in the BTX-treated soleus was not caused by a decrease of the size of the muscle fibres. Thus a brief temporary paralysis prevents the expansion of motor unit territory that normally occurs in partially denervated muscles. 4. Examination of the innervation pattern and incidence of sprouting revealed that in partially denervated NaCl-treated muscles 24 +/- 4% (S.E.M., n = 4) of endplates was contacted by either terminal or collateral sprouts, whereas in the BTX-treated muscles only 5 +/- 2% (S.E.M., n = 3) of endplates had been contacted by sprouts. Treatment with BTX alone, without partial denervation, did not affect the tension output of the muscles, but caused 8 +/- 5% (S.E.M., n = 3) of the endplates to become innervated by collateral sprouts, as compared to only 3 +/- 2% (S.E.M., n = 3) in controls.

Metabolic stabilization of endplate acetylcholine receptors regulated by Ca2+ influx associated with muscle activity

During formation of the neuromuscular junction, acetylcholine receptors in the endplate membrane become metabolically stabilized under neural control, their half-life increasing from about 1 day to about 10 days. The metabolic stability of the receptors is regulated by the electrical activity induced in the muscle by innervation. We report here that metabolic stabilization of endplate receptors but not of extrajunctional receptors can be induced in the absence of muscle activity if muscles are treated with the calcium ionophore A23187. Acetylcholine receptor stabilization was also induced by culturing non-stimulated muscle in elevated K+ with the Ca2+ channel activator (+)-SDZ202-791. Conversely, activity-dependent receptor stabilization is prevented in muscle stimulated in the presence of the Ca2+ channel blockers (+)-PN200-110 or D-600. Treatment of muscles with ryanodine, which induces Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in the absence of activity, does not cause stabilization of junctional receptors. Evidently, muscle activity induces metabolic acetylcholine receptor stabilization by way of an influx of Ca2+ ions through dihydropyridine-sensitive Ca2+ channels in the endplate membrane, whereas Ca2+ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is ineffective in this developmental process.

Metabolic stabilization of acetylcholine receptors in vertebrate neuromuscular junction by muscle activity

The effects of muscle activity on the growth of synaptic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) accumulations and on the metabolic AChR stability were investigated in rat skeletal muscle. Ectopic end plates induced surgically in adult soleus muscle were denervated early during development when junctional AChR number and stability were still low and, subsequently, muscles were either left inactive or they were kept active by chronic exogenous stimulation. AChR numbers per ectopic AChR cluster and AChR stabilities were estimated from the radioactivity and its decay with time, respectively, of end plate sites whose AChRs had been labeled with 125I-alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha-butx). The results show that the metabolic stability of the AChRs in ectopic clusters is reversibly increased by muscle activity even when innervation is eliminated very early in development. 1 d of stimulation is sufficient to stabilize the AChRs in ectopic AChR clusters. Muscle stimulation also produced an increase in the number of AChRs at early denervated end plates. Activity-induced cluster growth occurs mainly by an increase in area rather than in AChR density, and for at least 10 d after denervation is comparable to that in normally developing ectopic end plates. The possible involvement of AChR stabilization in end plate growth is discussed.

Regulation of turnover and number of acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions

The number and metabolic stability of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) at neuromuscular junctions of rat tibialis anterior (TA) and soleus (SOL) muscles were examined after denervation, paralysis by continuous application of tetrodotoxin to the nerve, or denervation and direct stimulation of the muscle through implanted electrodes. After 18 days of denervation AChR half-life declined from about 10 days to 2.3 days (TA) or 3.6 days (SOL) and after 18 days of nerve conduction block to 3.1 days (TA). In contrast, the total number of AChRs per endplate was unaffected by these treatments. Denervation for 33 days had no further effect on AChR half-life but reduced the total number of AChRs to about 54% (SOL) or 38% (TA) of normal. Direct stimulation of the 33-day denervated SOL from day 18 restored normal AChR stability and counteracted muscle atrophy but had no effect on the decline in AChR number. The results indicate that motoneurons control the stability of junctional AChRs through evoked muscle activity and the number of junctional AChRs through trophic factors.