Slowly inactivating potassium current in cultured bull-frog primary afferent and sympathetic neurones

Synaptic depression in conjunction with A-current channels promote phase constancy in a rhythmic network

In many central pattern generators, pairs of neurons maintain an approximately fixed phase despite large changes in the frequency. The mechanisms underlying phase maintenance are not clear. Previous theoretical work suggested that inhibitory synapses that show short-term depression could play a critical role in this respect. In this work we examine how the interaction between synaptic depression and the kinetics of a transient potassium (A-like) current could be advantageous for phase constancy in a rhythmic network. To demonstrate the mechanism in the context of a realistic central pattern generator, we constructed a detailed model of the crustacean pyloric circuit. The frequency of the rhythm was modified by changing the level of a ligand-activated current in one of the pyloric neurons. We examined how the time difference of firing activities between two selected neurons in this circuit is affected by synaptic depression, A-current, and a combination of the two. We tuned the parameters of the model such that with synaptic depression alone, or A-current alone, phase was not maintained between these two neurons. However, when these two components came together, they acted synergistically to maintain the phase across a wide range of cycle periods. This suggests that synaptic depression may be necessary to allow an A-current to delay a postsynaptic neuron in a frequency-dependent manner, such that phase invariance is ensured.

Pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid can antagonize the purinoceptor-mediated inhibition of M-current in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell recordings of an M-type potassium current (I(M)) were made from dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons. Purinoceptor agonists inhibited I(M) with UTP>ADP>adenosine triphosphate=UDP>ATPgammaS=guanosine triphosphate (GTP)>>amyloid precursor protein (APP)(NH)P as the rank order of potency. The IC(50) was 35 nM for UTP, and 2.6 microM for GTP. Under conditions in which I(M) was abolished by UTP (1 microM), a sulfonic acid derivative, pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS) (30-300 microM) recruited I(M) to 15 to 90% of its control in a reversible and concentration-dependent manner. These results indicate that PPADS can be useful as an antagonist for the purinoceptors presumably P2Y subtypes in amphibian autonomic neurons.

Hyperpolarizing shift by quinine in the steady-state inactivation curve of delayed rectifier-type potassium current in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell recordings were made from dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons to examine the actions of quinine (1-100 microM) on the steady-state activation and inactivation curves of a delayed rectifier-type potassium current (I(K)). Quinine (EC50 approximately 8 microM) caused a hyperpolarizing shift (approximately 31 mV with 30 microM) in the inactivation curve of I(K) without significantly affecting its activation curve. Quinine (20 microM) was without effects on the voltage-dependence of a rapidly-inactivating A-type potassium current (I(A)). It is concluded that quinine can selectively modulate the voltage-dependence of I(K) in amphibian autonomic neurons.

Nitrooxy alkyl apovincaminate activates K+ currents in rat neocortical neurons

The effects of nitrooxy alkyl apovincaminate VA-045 ((+)-eburunamenine-14-carboxylic acid(2-nitroxy-ethyl ester), VA) were investigated in acutely dissociated rat neocortical neurons by using a nystatin-perforated patch recording configuration. VA activated a steady-state outward current in a concentration-dependent manner, with an EC50 of 0.65 microM. The reversal potential for the current shifted 56.5 mV with tenfold changes in the extracellular K+ concentration, suggesting that the current was carried by K+. The VA-induced current was not suppressed by apamin (1 microM), charybdotoxin (1 microM), Cs+ (3 mM), Ba2+ (3 mM), 4-aminopyridine (10 mM) or glibenclamide (10 microM), whereas tetraethylammonium suppressed the current with an IC50 of 1.4 mM. These pharmacological properties of the VA-induced current were compatible with a slowly inactivating delayed rectifier current (I(K)). It was suggested that the current activated by VA was I(K). The VA-induced current was not affected by Ca2+ depletion or by staurosporine (0.1 microM), quinacrine (10 microM), wortmanin (1 microM) or genistein (1 microM). The intracellular perfusion of GDPbetaS (0.4 mM) also had no significant effect. Thus, VA may directly activate the K+ channels.

Effects of lanthanides on voltage-dependent potassium currents in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

The effects of lanthanides (La(3+), Gd(3+), Lu(3+) and Sm(3+)) on voltage-dependent potassium currents were studied in dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons. A-type current (I(A)) and M-type current (I(M)) were blocked by lanthanides (0.1-30 microM) with I(M) being much less sensitive to these ions than I(A). The order of potency was Gd(3+)>/=Lu(3+) approximately La(3+) approximately Sm(3+) for I(A) and Gd(3+)&z.Gt;Lu(3+) approximately La(3+)>Sm(3+) for I(M). The I(M) block occurred independently of its activation kinetics while the I(A) block was associated with a positive shift of the activation and inactivation curves. Gd(3+) (100 microM) blocked the delayed rectifier-type current (I(K)) by less than 20%; Lu(3+), La(3+) and Sm(3+) (100 microM for each) were without effect on I(K). It is concluded that I(A) was the most sensitive to lanthanides, and Gd(3+) was the most potent for all the currents in amphibian autonomic neurons.

Mechanisms underlying the M-current block by barium in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell/voltage-clamp recordings were made from dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons to examine the channel blocking actions of barium (3-2000 microM) on an M-type potassium current (I(M)). Barium (IC(50) approximately 105 microM) blocked I(M) without affecting the 50%-activation voltage ( approximately -35 mV) and the slope factor ( approximately 11 mV) of the activation curve. The results indicate that the barium block is independent of the kinetics of I(M).

Effects of quinine on three different types of potassium currents in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell/voltage-clamp recordings were made from dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons to examine the sensitivity of potassium currents to a potassium channel blocker quinine (1-500 microM). Among three currents tested, a rapidly inactivating A-type current (I(A)) was the most sensitive to the block by quinine (IC50 approximately 22 microM). A non-inactivating M-type current (I(M)) was the least sensitive (IC50 approximately 445 microM), and the sensitivity of a slowly inactivating delayed rectifier-type current (I(K)) was in between (IC50 approximately 115 microM). Results suggest that the ability of quinine to block different types of potassium currents such as I(A) and I(M) with significantly different IC50 values would be of help for the potassium channel pharmacology in amphibian autonomic ganglion cells.

Prostaglandin E receptor subtypes in cultured rat microglia and their role in reducing lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin-1beta production

Prostaglandins (PGs) are potent modulators of brain function under normal and pathological conditions. The diverse effects of PGs are due to the various actions of specific receptor subtypes for these prostanoids. Recent work has shown that PGE2, while generally considered a proinflammatory molecule, reduces microglial activation and thus has an antiinflammatory effect on these cells. To gain further insight to the mechanisms by which PGE2 influences the activation of microglia, we investigated PGE receptor subtype, i.e., EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4, expression and function in cultured rat microglia. RT-PCR showed the presence of the EP1 and EP2 but not EP3 and EP4 receptor subtypes. Sequencing confirmed their identity with previously published receptor subtypes. PGE2 and the EP1 agonist 17-phenyl trinor PGE2 but not the EP3 agonist sulprostone elicited reversible intracellular [Ca2+] increases in microglia as measured by fura-2. PGE2 and the EP2/EP4-specific agonists 11-deoxy-PGE1 and 19-hydroxy-PGE2 but not the EP4-selective agonist 1-hydroxy-PGE1 induced dose-dependent production of cyclic AMP (cAMP). Interleukin (IL)-1beta production, a marker of activated microglia, was also measured following lipopolysaccharide exposure in the presence or absence of the receptor subtype agonists. PGE2 and the EP2 agonists reduced IL-1beta production. IL-1beta production was unchanged by EP1, EP3, and EP4 agonists. The adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin and the cAMP analogue dibutyryl cAMP also reduced IL-1beta production. Thus, the inhibitory effects of PGE2 on microglia are mediated by the EP2 receptor subtype, and the signaling mechanism of this effect is likely via cAMP. These results show that the effects of PGE2 on microglia are receptor subtype-specific. Furthermore, they suggest that specific and selective manipulation of the effects of PGs on microglia and, as a result, brain function may be possible.

Actions of zinc on rapidly inactivating A-type and non-inactivating M-type potassium currents in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

The actions of zinc on A-type potassium current (I(A)) were studied in dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons. Zinc (1-300 microM) caused a parallel shift in the activation and inactivation curves to a depolarizing direction, thereby enhancing I(A) around physiological resting potential. An EC50 value was 70-100 microM for these actions. The zinc actions were non-selective in a sense that zinc inhibited M-type potassium current (I(M)) with an IC50 value of 300 microM. Zinc was without effect on the maximum conductance for I(A) and the kinetic behavior for I(M). The ability of low concentrations of zinc to modulate separate set of potassium currents such as I(A) and I(M) in conceptually distinct manner may therefore assume pathophysiological importance for autonomic neurons.

Actions of barium on rapidly inactivating potassium current in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell/voltage-clamp recordings were made from dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons to examine the inhibitory actions of barium (0.01-3 mM) on a rapidly inactivating A-type potassium current (IA). The IC50 value was about 0.9 mM. Barium (1 mM) approximately halved the maximum amplitude of IA (approximately 1.7 nA near 0 mV) without significantly affecting a voltage for the 50%-activation (approximately -40 mV) and that for the 50%-inactivation (approximately -90 mV), nor did it affected the time course of IA. The results suggest that the barium block is independent of the kinetics of the A-channels in bullfrog sympathetic neurons.

Calcium-dependent after-hyperpolarization in dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell recordings were made from dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons. Tetraethylammonium (30 mM) and apamin (100 nM) were added to the superfusate to eliminate the known calcium-activated potassium currents termed Ic and IAHP. Under these conditions, the action potential carried by calcium ions was followed by a prolonged (10-60 s) after-hyperpolarization. A current component (IAC) underlying the after-hyperpolarization was eliminated by barium (2 mM) and showed voltage-dependence identical to that of a M-type potassium current. I concluded that the after-hyperpolarization is caused not only by IAHP but also by the calcium-dependent potentiation of M-current.

Calcium-dependent potentiation of M-current in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings were made from cultured bullfrog sympathetic neurons to measure the steady-state activation curve of M-type potassium current. When measured with a calcium-deficient (10 nM) pipette solution M-conductance was 4.8 nS at -35 mV having the 50%-activation voltage at-20 mV. Respective values were 17.2 nS at -35 mV with the 50%-activation voltage at -42 mV when measured with a calcium-rich (1 microM) solution, indicating the hyperpolarizing displacement of the activation curve with high internal calcium. It is suggested that intracellular calcium ions can modulate kinetics of M-current which thereby regulate the number of M-channels being open at given membrane potentials.

Hyperpolarizing shift of the M-current activation curve after washout of muscarine in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

The mechanism underlying the over-recovery of an M-type potassium current following the washout of muscarine (20 microM) has been examined. Whole-cell recordings were made from single neurons dissociated from bullfrog sympathetic ganglia. During over-recovery, the maximum M-conductance decreased by about 2.8 nS while the steady-state M-current activation curve was displaced in the hyperpolarizing direction by about 13 mV. These data suggest that a hyperpolarizing shift in the kinetics of M-current causes over-recovery in amphibian autonomic neurons.

Effects of myosin light chain kinase inhibitors on delayed rectifier potassium current in bullfrog sympathetic neurons

Actions of myosin light chain kinase inhibitors were tested on delayed rectifier potassium current (IK) in dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurons. A microbial product, wortmannin (10 microM, extracellularly) and a synthetic peptide, SM-1 (20 microM, intracellularly) caused approximately 35 mV hyperpolarizing shift of the inactivation curve. Substitution of ATP (1.15 mM) in the pipette solution with 5'-adenylylimidodiphosphate mimicked the actions of wortmannin and SM-1. Results suggest that phosphorylation of myosin may modulate kinetics for the inactivation of IK.

Inhibition by wortmannin of M-current in bullfrog sympathetic neurones

1. The actions of wortmannin, an inhibitor of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), on M-type potassium current of dissociated bullfrog sympathetic neurones have been examined. 2. The amplitude of M-current was measured by whole cell recordings from cells pretreated with wortmannin (0.01-10 microM) or the wortmannin vehicle, dimethylsulphoxide (0.0001-0.1 vol%), for 30 min. Internal (recording pipette) solutions having three different pCa values (6, 7 and 8) were used for the measurements. 3. Irrespective of the pCa, M-current was not detectable when the cells were pretreated with 10 microM wortmannin. Wortmannin, 3 microM, produced 85-95% inhibition of the M-current. Pretreatment with 10-30 nM wortmannin was without effect on M-current. 4. The M-current inhibition by wortmannin at concentrations of 0.1-1 microM depended on the pCa of the internal solution. Inhibition occurred only when the calcium-rich (pCa = 6) internal solution was used. 5. Pre-treatment of the cells with wortmannin (10 microM) did not affect rapidly-inactivating A-type or delayed rectifier-type potassium currents not did it alter inwardly rectifying sodium-potassium current (IH). 6. These observations show that M-current inhibition by wortmannin has two pharmacological profiles. One is calcium-dependent and occurs at lower concentrations (0.1-1 microM), and is attributed to inhibition of MLCK by wortmannin. At higher concentrations (3-10 microM), wortmannin has an additional, calcium-independent action, inhibiting the M-current by an unknown mechanism.

Muscarinic inhibition of two potassium currents in guinea-pig prevertebral neurons: differentiation by extracellular cesium

Muscarinic responses were studied in dissociated guinea-pig celiac ganglion neurons using the whole-cell voltage-clamp technique. Muscarine (0.025-1 mM; EC50 = 95 microM) administered to cells for 1.5 s evoked inward shifts in holding current in 53 of 74 cells. The amplitude of the inward current transients decreased with hyperpolarization and the null potential averaged -71 +/- 3.4 mV (n = 11). The currents that underlie the responses to muscarine were examined with hyperpolarizing voltage stepping protocols to -100 mV from a holding potential of -30 mV. Eighty-one per cent of cells displayed voltage-dependent current relaxations characteristic of the M-potassium current. Twenty per cent of responding cells displayed no M-current but only a voltage-independent current consistent with a leak current. In the latter type of cells, the muscarine-evoked inward currents reversed near EK and became outward at more hyperpolarized potentials. Analysis of steady state I-V relationships before and after bath application of muscarine showed that the two muscarine-sensitive potassium currents were distributed differently among three types of cells: (i) with M-current (18%); (ii) with leak current (18%); and (iii) with M-current and with leak current (64%). Cesium and barium were used to differentiate the M-current and the muscarine-sensitive leak current. Barium (2 mM) reduced the M-current and the leak potassium current, whereas cesium (2 mM) reduced the M-current but did not affect leak current. Thus, barium reduced the amplitude of muscarinic responses by 79% but cesium reduced them by only 14%. We conclude that muscarinic responses in guinea-pig celiac neurons are produced by suppression of two K+ currents: the M-current and a muscarine-sensitive leak current. These two currents are differentially susceptible to the potassium channel blockers barium and cesium.

Chemosensitivity of C-cells in bullfrog dorsal root ganglia to substance P and adenosine 5'-triphosphate

Dissociated bullfrog dorsal root ganglion cells were voltage clamped in the whole-cell configuration. In small C-cells having 20 microns as averaged diameter, substance-P (0.1-1 microM) inhibited an M-type potassium current while ATP (1-10 microM) activated a sodium-potassium current. In large A-cells (approximately 65 microns in diameter) in which ATP has been shown to inhibit M-current, substance P (0.1-1 microM) also inhibited this potassium current without activating the sodium-potassium current. Results provided evidence for the distinction between A- and C-cells in terms of their chemosensitivity.

Intracellular ATP changes the voltage-dependence of delayed rectifier potassium current in bullfrog primary afferent neurons

Dissociated bullfrog dorsal root ganglion cells were voltage-clamped in the whole-cell configuration to study the steady-state activation and inactivation curves for a delayed rectifier potassium current. The 50%-activation of the current occurred at +15 mV when measured with ATP (5 mM) in the pipette solution as opposed to -11 mV with 5'-adenylylimidodiphosphate (AMP-PNP, 5 mM) and -15 mV with adenosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (5 mM). The 50%-inactivation of the current occurred at -6 mV with ATP but at -31 mM with AMP-PNP. The results suggest that intracellular ATP modulates voltage-dependence of the delayed rectifier in amphibian afferent neurons.

Myosin light chain kinase occurs in bullfrog sympathetic neurons and may modulate voltage-dependent potassium currents

A polyclonal antibody against myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) of chicken gizzard recognized a 130 kd peptide of bullfrog sympathetic ganglia as MLCK. MLCK immunoreactivity was confined to the neuronal cell body. A synthetic peptide corresponding to an inhibitory domain of MLCK (Ala783-Gly804) was applied intracellularly to isolated sympathetic neurons during whole-cell recordings of ionic currents. The peptide inhibitor reversibly decreased M-type potassium current (IM) while not affecting A-type of delayed rectifier-type potassium currents. Intracellular application of an active fragment of MLCK enhanced IM, whereas application of an inactive MLCK fragment did not. The results suggest that IM can be modulated by MLCK-catalyzed phosphorylation.

Bradykinin-induced ion currents in cultured rat trigeminal ganglion cells

Effects of bradykinin (BK) on membrane currents of cultured rat trigeminal ganglion cells were studied with a G omega-sealed discontinuous voltage clamp technique. Bradykinin (0.05 nM-1 microM) produced membrane depolarization in most cells and hyperpolarization in some cells via a variety of ionic mechanisms: (1) activation of a cation current, (2) enhancement or (3) inhibition of a hyperpolarization-activated inwardly rectifying cation current known as IH, (4) reduction or (5) enhancement of an outwardly rectifying outward current (presumably a delayed K+ current), (6) inhibition of a slow-gating voltage-dependent steady-state outward current (at > -55 mV) and/or (7) increase in another slow-gating voltage-dependent outward current (at > or = -70 mV). These components of BK-induced currents appeared in different combinations and extents among cells, explaining complex excitatory and modulatory actions of BK in different regions and types of sensory neurons.

Mechanical modulation of a voltage-dependent non-inactivating K+ current in cultured bullfrog sympathetic neurones

Cultured bullfrog sympathetic ganglion cells were voltage-clamped with a whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Local flow of a solution (identical to the bathing solution) from a micropipette to a cell, but not other mechanical stimuli, produced a non-inactivating outward (in 34 cells out of 141) or inward (in 70 cells) current [I(f)(out) or I(f)(in), respectively] depending on cells. Both I(f)(out) and I(f)(in) appeared at voltages more positive than -60 mV. The mechanism, however, was activated even at -70 mV, as I(f)(out) or I(f)(in) appeared on shifting membrane potential to -30 mV immediately after the local flow. I(f)(out) and I(f)(in) were accompanied by increases and decreases, respectively, in the membrane conductance and current relaxation to a voltage jump between -30 mV and -55 mV without a change in its time constant (whose value was similar to that of a voltage-dependent non-inactivating K+ current, IM), and reversed at a membrane potential close to the equilibrium potential for K+. Both I(f)(out) and I(f)(in) were blocked by Ba2+ (4-8 mM), a blocker of IM, and by muscarine (10 microM), which produced either an "apparent inward" or outward current. A transient outward current activated by a voltage jump from -85 mV (or -75 mV) to -30 mV was little affected by a local flow of a solution which produced I(f)(out) or I(f)(in). These results suggest that the local solution flow produced I(f)(in) or I(f)(out) by deactivating or activating IM, respectively.

A slow voltage-activated potassium current in rat vagal neurons

Potassium currents play a key role in controlling the excitability of neurons. In this paper we describe the properties of a novel voltage-activated potassium current in neurons of the rat dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV). Intracellular recordings were made from DMV neurons in transverse slices of the medulla. Under voltage clamp, depolarization of these neurons from hyperpolarized membrane potentials (more negative than -80 mV) activated two transient outward currents. One had fast kinetics and had properties similar to A-currents. The other current had an activation threshold of around -95 mV (from a holding potential -110 mV) and inactivated with a time constant of about 3s. It had a reversal potential close to the potassium equilibrium potential. This current was not calcium dependent and was not blocked by 4-aminopyridine (5 mM), catechol (5 mM) or tetraethylammonium (20 mM). It was completely inactivated at the resting membrane potential. This current therefore represents a new type of voltage-activated potassium current. It is suggested that this current might act as a brake to repetitive firing when the neuron is depolarized from membrane potentials negative to the resting potential.

Inactivation characteristics of a sustained, Ca(2+)-independent K+ current of rat hippocampal neurones in vitro

1. Current or voltage clamp recordings from CA3 neurones of the adult rat hippocampal slice were performed to study the inactivation properties of a slow outward K+ current identified as the delayed rectifier (IK). 2. In current clamp experiments, burst firing evoked from resting membrane potential by intracellular current injection was reduced or blocked by conditioning hyperpolarizing pre-pulses of 20-40 mV amplitude. This effect was inhibited by tetraethylammonium (TEA; 20 mM) but was unaffected by Cs+ (3 mM), 4-aminopyridine (4-AP; 2 mM), carbachol (30-50 microM), mast cell degranulating peptide (MCDP; 300 nM), thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH; 1 microM) or by a Ca(2+)-free solution containing Mn2+ or Co2+ (2 mM). 3. Single-electrode voltage clamp experiments were carried out on neurones superfused with Ca(2+)-free solution, containing tetrodotoxin (TTX; 1 microM), Mn2+ or Co2+ (2 mM), 4-AP (2 mM), Cs+ (3 mM) and carbachol (30 microM). Step depolarizations from a holding potential of -55 mV activated an outward current which reached a plateau after 200 ms, followed by an outward tail current. Such an outward current had the characteristics of IK. 4. The outward currents were significantly potentiated by conditioning hyperpolarizing pre-pulses suggesting the IK was reduced by a voltage-dependent inactivation process. Removal of inactivation was a function of the amplitude of the conditioning hyperpolarizing pre-pulse. At a holding potential of -55 mV removal of inactivation was time dependent with a time constant of 211 ms. High K+ (12.5 or 21.5 mM) solutions did not affect the inactivation characteristics of IK. 5. Tetraethylammonium (20 mM) or low concentrations of Ba2+ (0.1 mM) readily depressed the outward current without significantly affecting the inactivation process. Dendrotoxin (200 nM) also depressed such a slow current but, in addition, increased the inactivation process of IK. 6. It is suggested that removal of inactivation of IK by hyperpolarization can modulate cell excitability by fully restoring the ability of IK to inhibit burst firing of CA3 hippocampal neurones.