Regulation of intracellular pH in salamander retinal rods

Bicarbonate boosts flash response amplitude to augment absolute sensitivity and extend dynamic range in murine retinal rods

Rod photoreceptors in the retina adjust their responsiveness and sensitivity so that they can continue to provide meaningful information over a wide range of light intensities. By stimulating membrane guanylate cyclases in the outer segment to synthesize cGMP at a faster rate in a Ca²⁺-dependent fashion, bicarbonate increases the circulating "dark" current and accelerates flash response kinetics in amphibian rods. Compared to amphibian rods, mammalian rods are smaller in size, operate at a higher temperature, and express visual cascade proteins with somewhat different biochemical properties. Here, we evaluated the role of bicarbonate in rods of cpfl3 mice. These mice are deficient in their expression of functional cone transducin, Gnat2, making cones very insensitive to light, so the rod response to light could be observed in isolation in electroretinogram recordings. Bicarbonate increased the dark current and absolute sensitivity and quickened flash response recovery in mouse rods to a greater extent than in amphibian rods. In addition, bicarbonate enabled mouse rods to respond over a range that extended to dimmer flashes. Larger flash responses may have resulted in part from a bicarbonate-induced elevation in intracellular pH. However, high pH alone had little effect on flash response recovery kinetics and even suppressed the accelerating effect of bicarbonate, consistent with a direct, modulatory action of bicarbonate on Ca²⁺- dependent, membrane guanylate cyclase activity.

Sources of protons and a role for bicarbonate in inhibitory feedback from horizontal cells to cones in Ambystoma tigrinum retina

KEY POINTS

In the vertebrate retina, photoreceptors influence the signalling of neighbouring photoreceptors through lateral-inhibitory interactions mediated by horizontal cells (HCs). These interactions create antagonistic centre-surround receptive fields important for detecting edges and generating chromatically opponent responses in colour vision. The mechanisms responsible for inhibitory feedback from HCs involve changes in synaptic cleft pH that modulate photoreceptor calcium currents. However, the sources of synaptic protons involved in feedback and the mechanisms for their removal from the cleft when HCs hyperpolarize to light remain unknown. Our results indicate that Na⁺ -H⁺ exchangers are the principal source of synaptic cleft protons involved in HC feedback but that synaptic cleft alkalization during light-evoked hyperpolarization of HCs also involves changes in bicarbonate transport across the HC membrane. In addition to delineating processes that establish lateral inhibition in the retina, these results contribute to other evidence showing the key role for pH in regulating synaptic signalling throughout the nervous system.

ABSTRACT

Lateral-inhibitory feedback from horizontal cells (HCs) to photoreceptors involves changes in synaptic cleft pH accompanying light-evoked changes in HC membrane potential. We analysed HC to cone feedback by studying surround-evoked light responses of cones and by obtaining paired whole cell recordings from cones and HCs in salamander retina. We tested three potential sources for synaptic cleft protons: (1) generation by extracellular carbonic anhydrase (CA), (2) release from acidic synaptic vesicles and (3) Na⁺ /H⁺ exchangers (NHEs). Neither antagonizing extracellular CA nor blocking loading of protons into synaptic vesicles eliminated feedback. However, feedback was eliminated when extracellular Na⁺ was replaced with choline and significantly reduced by an NHE inhibitor, cariporide. Depriving NHEs of intracellular protons by buffering HC cytosol with a pH 9.2 pipette solution eliminated feedback, whereas alkalinizing the cone cytosol did not, suggesting that HCs are a major source for protons in feedback. We also examined mechanisms for changing synaptic cleft pH in response to changes in HC membrane potential. Increasing the trans-membrane proton gradient by lowering the extracellular pH from 7.8 to 7.4 to 7.1 strengthened feedback. While maintaining constant extracellular pH with 1 mm HEPES, removal of bicarbonate abolished feedback. Elevating intracellular bicarbonate levels within HCs prevented this loss of feedback. A bicarbonate transport inhibitor, 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DIDS), also blocked feedback. Together, these results suggest that NHEs are the primary source of extracellular protons in HC feedback but that changes in cleft pH accompanying changes in HC membrane voltage also require bicarbonate flux across the HC membrane.

Lateral interactions in the outer retina

Lateral interactions in the outer retina, particularly negative feedback from horizontal cells to cones and direct feed-forward input from horizontal cells to bipolar cells, play a number of important roles in early visual processing, such as generating center-surround receptive fields that enhance spatial discrimination. These circuits may also contribute to post-receptoral light adaptation and the generation of color opponency. In this review, we examine the contributions of horizontal cell feedback and feed-forward pathways to early visual processing. We begin by reviewing the properties of bipolar cell receptive fields, especially with respect to modulation of the bipolar receptive field surround by the ambient light level and to the contribution of horizontal cells to the surround. We then review evidence for and against three proposed mechanisms for negative feedback from horizontal cells to cones: 1) GABA release by horizontal cells, 2) ephaptic modulation of the cone pedicle membrane potential generated by currents flowing through hemigap junctions in horizontal cell dendrites, and 3) modulation of cone calcium currents (I(Ca)) by changes in synaptic cleft proton levels. We also consider evidence for the presence of direct horizontal cell feed-forward input to bipolar cells and discuss a possible role for GABA at this synapse. We summarize proposed functions of horizontal cell feedback and feed-forward pathways. Finally, we examine the mechanisms and functions of two other forms of lateral interaction in the outer retina: negative feedback from horizontal cells to rods and positive feedback from horizontal cells to cones.

Intracellular pH modulates inner segment calcium homeostasis in vertebrate photoreceptors

Neuronal metabolic and electrical activity is associated with shifts in intracellular pH (pH(i)) proton activity and state-dependent changes in activation of signaling pathways in the plasma membrane, cytosol, and intracellular compartments. We investigated interactions between two intracellular messenger ions, protons and calcium (Ca²(+)), in salamander photoreceptor inner segments loaded with Ca²(+) and pH indicator dyes. Resting cytosolic pH in rods and cones in HEPES-based saline was acidified by ∼0.4 pH units with respect to pH of the superfusing saline (pH = 7.6), indicating that dissociated inner segments experience continuous acid loading. Cytosolic alkalinization with ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) depolarized photoreceptors and stimulated Ca²(+) release from internal stores, yet paradoxically also evoked dose-dependent, reversible decreases in [Ca²(+)](i). Alkalinization-evoked [Ca²(+)](i) decreases were independent of voltage-operated and store-operated Ca²(+) entry, plasma membrane Ca²(+) extrusion, and Ca²(+) sequestration into internal stores. The [Ca²(+)](i)-suppressive effects of alkalinization were antagonized by the fast Ca²(+) buffer BAPTA, suggesting that pH(i) directly regulates Ca²(+) binding to internal anionic sites. In summary, this data suggest that endogenously produced protons continually modulate the membrane potential, release from Ca²(+) stores, and intracellular Ca²(+) buffering in rod and cone inner segments.

Regulation and modulation of pH in the brain

The regulation of pH is a vital homeostatic function shared by all tissues. Mechanisms that govern H+ in the intracellular and extracellular fluid are especially important in the brain, because electrical activity can elicit rapid pH changes in both compartments. These acid-base transients may in turn influence neural activity by affecting a variety of ion channels. The mechanisms responsible for the regulation of intracellular pH in brain are similar to those of other tissues and are comprised principally of forms of Na+/H+ exchange, Na+-driven Cl-/HCO3- exchange, Na+-HCO3- cotransport, and passive Cl-/HCO3- exchange. Differences in the expression or efficacy of these mechanisms have been noted among the functionally and morphologically diverse neurons and glial cells that have been studied. Molecular identification of transporter isoforms has revealed heterogeneity among brain regions and cell types. Neural activity gives rise to an assortment of extracellular and intracellular pH shifts that originate from a variety of mechanisms. Intracellular pH shifts in neurons and glia have been linked to Ca2+ transport, activation of acid extrusion systems, and the accumulation of metabolic products. Extracellular pH shifts can occur within milliseconds of neural activity, arise from an assortment of mechanisms, and are governed by the activity of extracellular carbonic anhydrase. The functional significance of these compartmental, activity-dependent pH shifts is discussed.

Protons and calcium alter gating of the hyperpolarization-activated cation current (I(h)) in rod photoreceptors

We investigated the effects of protons and calcium ions on the voltage-dependent gating of the hyperpolarization-activated, nonselective cation channel current, I(h), in rod photoreceptors. I(h) is a cesium-sensitive current responsible for the peak-plateau sag during the rod response to bright light. The voltage dependence of I(h) activation shifted about 5 mV per pH unit, with external acidification producing positive shifts and alkalinization producing negative shifts. Increasing external [Ca(2+)] from 3 to 20 mM resulted in a large (approximately 17 mV) positive shift in I(h) activation. External [Ca(2+)] (20 mM) blocked pH-induced shifts in activation. Cytoplasmic acidification produced by 25 mM sodium acetate led to a negative shift in inactivation (-9 mV) and internal alkalinization produced with 20 mM ammonium chloride resulted in a positive shift (+6 mV). Surface charge binding and screening theory (Gouy-Chapman-Stern) accounted for the observed shifts in I(h) activation, with the best fit achieved when protons and calcium ions were assumed to bind to distinct sites on the membrane. Since light induces changes in the retinal ionic environment, these results permit us to gauge the degree to which rod light responses could be modified via alterations in I(h) activation.

pH and rate of "dark" events in toad retinal rods: test of a hypothesis on the molecular origin of photoreceptor noise

Thermal activation of the visual pigment constitutes a fundamental constraint on visual sensitivity. Its electrical correlate in the membrane current of dark-adapted rods are randomly occurring discrete "dark events" indistinguishable from responses to single photons. It has been proposed that thermal activation occurs in a small subpopulation of rhodopsin molecules where the Schiff base linking the chromophore to the protein part is unprotonated. On this hypothesis, rates of thermal activation should increase strongly with rising pH. The hypothesis has been tested by measuring the effect of pH changes on the frequency of discrete dark events in red rods of the common toad Bufo bufo. Dark noise was recorded from isolated rods using the suction pipette technique. Changes in cytoplasmic pH upon manipulations of extracellular pH were quantified by measuring, using fast single-cell microspectrophotometry, the pH-dependent metarhodopsin I-metarhodopsin II equilibrium and subsequent metarhodopsin III formation. These measurements show that, in the conditions of the electrophysiological experiments, changing perfusion pH from 6.5 to 9.3 resulted in a cytoplasmic pH shift from 7.6 to 8.5 that was readily sensed by the rhodopsin. This shift, which implies an 8-fold decrease in cytoplasmic [H(+)], did not increase the rate of dark events. The results contradict the hypothesis that thermal pigment activation depends on prior deprotonation of the Schiff base.

Elevated lysosomal pH in neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs)

We report here the intracellular (pHi) and lysosomal pH in fibroblasts of six forms of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs). Acid extrusion rate and pH(i) values were measured by the membrane-permeant acetoxymethyl ester of the indicator dye, 2',7'-bis(carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-carboxy-fluorescein (BCECF) and lysosomal pH by a spectrofluorometric assay utilizing a novel acidotropic probe, Lysosensor yellow/blue. Intracellular pH was normal in all NCLs. Elevated lysosomal pH was detected in all NCL forms except CLN2 and CLN8. Elevated pH most probably disturbs the catalytic activity of lysosomes and is one important factor in explaining accumulation of ceroid and lipofuscin-like autofluorescent lipopigments characteristic of NCLs. Using the novel spectrofluorometric assay introduced in this study provides a fast and repeatable technique to measure intralysosomal pH from cell suspensions.

Effect of extracellular HCO(3)(-) on Na(+) channel characteristics in hippocampal CA1 neurons

The effect of HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) on membrane properties of isolated hippocampal CA1 neurons was studied with the use of the whole cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique. Neurons were acutely dissociated from 21- to 30-day-old mice. In the current-clamp mode, HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) significantly hyperpolarized CA1 neurons by more than 10 mV and decreased their input resistance. In addition, the overall excitability of these neurons was lower in the presence of HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) than in HEPES. Spontaneous and evoked action potential firing frequency was lower in the presence of HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) than in its absence. In the voltage-clamp mode, both activation and steady-state inactivation of a fast Na(+) current were shifted in the hyperpolarized direction in such a way that the window currents were smaller in HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) than in HEPES. Recovery from inactivation and deactivation from the open state of the fast Na(+) current was slower in HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) than in HEPES. We conclude that HCO(3)(-)/CO(2) decreases the intrinsic excitability of CA1 neurons by altering not only the passive properties of the neuronal membranes but also by changing several characteristics of the fast Na(+) current, including activation and inactivation kinetics as well as the recovery from inactivation and deactivation.

Compartmentalization of calcium extrusion mechanisms in the outer and inner segments of photoreceptors

Differential localization of calcium channel subtypes in divergent regions of individual neurons strongly suggests that calcium signaling and regulation could be compartmentalized. Region-specific expression of calcium extrusion transporters would serve also to partition calcium regulation within single cells. Little is known about selective localization of the calcium extrusion transporters, nor has compartmentalized calcium regulation within single neurons been studied in detail. Sensory neurons provide an experimentally tractable preparation to investigate this functional compartmentalization. We studied calcium regulation in the outer segment (OS) and inner segment/synaptic terminal (IS/ST) regions of rods and cones. We report these areas can function as separate compartments. Moreover, ionic, pharmacological, and immunolocalization results show that a Ca-ATPase, but not the Na+/K+, Ca2+ exchanger found in the OSs, extrudes calcium from the IS/ST region. The compartmentalization of calcium regulation in the photoreceptor outer and inner segments implies that transduction and synaptic signaling can be independently controlled. Similar separation of calcium-dependent functions is likely to apply in many types of neuron.

Differential stimulation of the Na+/H+ exchanger determines chloroquine uptake in Plasmodium falciparum

Here we describe the identification and characterization of a physiological marker that is associated with the chloroquine-resistant (CQR) phenotype in the human malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Single cell in vivo pH measurements revealed that CQR parasites consistently have an elevated cytoplasmic pH compared to that of chloroquine-sensitive (CQS) parasites because of a constitutively activated Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE). Together, biochemical and physiological data suggest that chloroquine activates the plasmodial NHE of CQS parasites, resulting in a transitory phase of rapid sodium/hydrogen ion exchange during which chloroquine is taken up by this protein. The constitutively stimulated NHE of CQR parasites are capable of little or no further activation by chloroquine. We propose that the inability of chloroquine to stimulate its own uptake through the constitutively activated NHE of resistant parasites constitutes a minimal and necessary event in the generation of the chloroquine-resistant phenotype.