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Hsu JC, Tang Z, Eremina OE, Sofias AM, Lammers T, Lovell JF, Zavaleta C, Cai W, Cormode DP. Nanomaterial-based contrast agents. NATURE REVIEWS. METHODS PRIMERS 2023; 3:30. [PMID: 38130699 PMCID: PMC10732545 DOI: 10.1038/s43586-023-00211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Medical imaging, which empowers the detection of physiological and pathological processes within living subjects, has a vital role in both preclinical and clinical diagnostics. Contrast agents are often needed to accompany anatomical data with functional information or to provide phenotyping of the disease in question. Many newly emerging contrast agents are based on nanomaterials as their high payloads, unique physicochemical properties, improved sensitivity and multimodality capacity are highly desired for many advanced forms of bioimaging techniques and applications. Here, we review the developments in the field of nanomaterial-based contrast agents. We outline important nanomaterial design considerations and discuss the effect on their physicochemical attributes, contrast properties and biological behaviour. We also describe commonly used approaches for formulating, functionalizing and characterizing these nanomaterials. Key applications are highlighted by categorizing nanomaterials on the basis of their X-ray, magnetic, nuclear, optical and/or photoacoustic contrast properties. Finally, we offer our perspectives on current challenges and emerging research topics as well as expectations for future advancements in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica C. Hsu
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Departments of Radiology and Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Zhongmin Tang
- Departments of Radiology and Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Olga E. Eremina
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alexandros Marios Sofias
- Department of Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Twan Lammers
- Department of Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jonathan F. Lovell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Cristina Zavaleta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Weibo Cai
- Departments of Radiology and Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - David P. Cormode
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Walther J, Golde J, Albrecht M, Quirk BC, Scolaro L, Kirk RW, Gruda Y, Schnabel C, Tetschke F, Joehrens K, Haim D, Buckova M, Li J, McLaughlin RA. A handheld fiber-optic probe to enable optical coherence tomography of oral soft tissue. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2022; 69:2276-2282. [PMID: 34995178 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2022.3141241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study presents a highly miniaturized, handheld probe developed for rapid assessment of soft tissue using optical coherence tomography (OCT). OCT is a non-invasive optical technology capable of visualizing the sub-surface structural changes that occur in soft tissue disease such as oral lichen planus. However, usage of OCT in the oral cavity has been limited, as the requirements for high-quality optical scanning have often resulted in probes that are heavy, unwieldy and clinically impractical. In this paper, we present a novel probe that combines an all-fiber optical design with a light-weight magnetic scanning mechanism to provide easy access to the oral cavity. The resulting probe is approximately the size of a pen (10 mm 140 mm) and weighs only 10 grams. To demonstrate the feasibility and high image quality achieved with the probe, imaging is performed on the buccal mucosa and alveolar mucosa during routine clinical assessment of six patients diagnosed with oral lichen planus. Results show the loss of normal tissue structure within the lesion, and contrast this with the clear delineation of tissue layers in adjacent inconspicuous regions. The results also demonstrate the ability of the probe to acquire a three-dimensional data volume by manually sweeping across the surface of the mucosa. The findings of this study show the feasibility of using a small, lightweight probe to identify pathological features in oral soft tissue.
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Albrecht M, Schnabel C, Mueller J, Golde J, Koch E, Walther J. In Vivo Endoscopic Optical Coherence Tomography of the Healthy Human Oral Mucosa: Qualitative and Quantitative Image Analysis. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:E827. [PMID: 33076312 PMCID: PMC7602587 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10100827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, there is still a lack of reliable imaging modalities to improve the quality of consultation, diagnostic and medical examinations of the oral mucosa in dentistry. Even though, optical technologies have become an important element for the detection and treatment of different diseases of soft tissue, for the case of oral screenings the evidence of the benefit in comparison to conventional histopathology is mostly still pending. One promising optical technology for oral diagnostics is optical coherence tomography (OCT). To prove the potential of OCT, even the amount of freely accessible OCT data is not sufficient to describe the variance of healthy human oral soft tissue in vivo. In order to remedy this deficiency, the present study provides in vivo OCT cross sections of the human oral mucosa of the anterior and posterior oral cavity as well as the oropharynx of 47 adult volunteers. A collection of representative OCT cross sections forms the basis for a randomized blinded image analysis by means of seven criteria to assess the main features of the superficial layers of the human oral mucosa and to determine its correlation to regional features known from hematoxylin and eosin (HE) stained histology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marius Albrecht
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (M.A.); (C.S.)
| | - Christian Schnabel
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (M.A.); (C.S.)
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Clinical Sensoring and Monitoring, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (J.M.); (J.G.); (E.K.)
| | - Juliane Mueller
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Clinical Sensoring and Monitoring, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (J.M.); (J.G.); (E.K.)
| | - Jonas Golde
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Clinical Sensoring and Monitoring, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (J.M.); (J.G.); (E.K.)
| | - Edmund Koch
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Clinical Sensoring and Monitoring, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (J.M.); (J.G.); (E.K.)
| | - Julia Walther
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Carl Gustav Carus Faculty of Medicine, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (M.A.); (C.S.)
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Li K, Yang Z, Liang W, Shang J, Liang Y, Wan S. Low-cost, ultracompact handheld optical coherence tomography probe for in vivo oral maxillofacial tissue imaging. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2020; 25:1-13. [PMID: 32314560 PMCID: PMC7167599 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.25.4.046003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has proven useful for detecting various oral maxillofacial abnormalities. To apply it to clinical applications including biopsy guidance and routine screening, a handheld imaging probe is indispensable. OCT probes reported for oral maxillofacial imaging were either based on a bulky galvanometric mirror pair (not compact or long enough) or a distal-end microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanner (raised safety concerns), or adapted from fiber-optic catheters (ill-suited for oral cavity geometry). AIM To develop a handheld probe featuring great compactness and excellent maneuverability for oral maxillofacial tissue imaging. APPROACH A dual-axis MEMS scanner was deployed at the proximal end of the probe and the scanned beam was relayed to the distal end through a 4f configuration. Such design provides both a perfect dual-axis telecentric scan and excellent compactness. RESULTS A handheld probe with a rigid part 70 mm in length and 7 mm in diameter and weighing 25 g in total was demonstrated through both ex vivo and in vivo experiments, including structural visualization of various oral maxillofacial tissues and monitoring the recovery process of an oral mucosa canker sore. CONCLUSIONS The proposed probe exhibits excellent maneuverability and imaging performance showing great potential in clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyan Li
- Southeast University, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zihan Yang
- Nankai University, Institute of Modern Optics, Tianjin, China
| | - Wenxuan Liang
- Columbia University, Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, New York, United States
| | - Jianwei Shang
- Nankai University, Tianjin Stomatological Hospital, Hospital of Stomatology, Department of Oral Pathology, Tianjin, China
| | - Yanmei Liang
- Nankai University, Institute of Modern Optics, Tianjin, China
- Address all correspondence to Yanmei Liang, E-mail: ; Suiren Wan, E-mail:
| | - Suiren Wan
- Southeast University, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Address all correspondence to Yanmei Liang, E-mail: ; Suiren Wan, E-mail:
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Higgins LM, Ganapathy V, Kantamneni H, Zhao X, Sheng Y, Tan MC, Roth CM, Riman RE, Moghe PV, Pierce MC. Multiscale optical imaging of rare-earth-doped nanocomposites in a small animal model. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2018; 23:1-4. [PMID: 29564865 PMCID: PMC5862142 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.23.3.030505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Rare-earth-doped nanocomposites have appealing optical properties for use as biomedical contrast agents, but few systems exist for imaging these materials. We describe the design and characterization of (i) a preclinical system for whole animal in vivo imaging and (ii) an integrated optical coherence tomography/confocal microscopy system for high-resolution imaging of ex vivo tissues. We demonstrate these systems by administering erbium-doped nanocomposites to a murine model of metastatic breast cancer. Short-wave infrared emissions were detected in vivo and in whole organ imaging ex vivo. Visible upconversion emissions and tissue autofluorescence were imaged in biopsy specimens, alongside optical coherence tomography imaging of tissue microstructure. We anticipate that this work will provide guidance for researchers seeking to image these nanomaterials across a wide range of biological models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M. Higgins
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
| | - Vidya Ganapathy
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
| | - Harini Kantamneni
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
| | - Xinyu Zhao
- Singapore University of Technology and Design, Engineering Product Development, Singapore
| | - Yang Sheng
- Singapore University of Technology and Design, Engineering Product Development, Singapore
| | - Mei-Chee Tan
- Singapore University of Technology and Design, Engineering Product Development, Singapore
| | - Charles M. Roth
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
| | - Richard E. Riman
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
| | - Prabhas V. Moghe
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
| | - Mark C. Pierce
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Mark C. Pierce, E-mail:
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6
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Gentile E, Maio C, Romano A, Laino L, Lucchese A. The potential role of in vivo optical coherence tomography for evaluating oral soft tissue: A systematic review. J Oral Pathol Med 2017; 46:864-876. [PMID: 28477348 DOI: 10.1111/jop.12589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The introduction of optical coherence tomography (OCT) in dentistry enabled the integration of already existing clinical and laboratory investigations in the study of the oral cavity. This systematic review presents an overview of the literature, to evaluate the usefulness of in vivo OCT for diagnosing oral soft tissues lesions, to compare the OCT results with traditional histology, and to identify limitations in prior studies so as to improve OCT applications. METHODS We performed a review of the literature using different search engines (PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library) employing MeSH terms such as "optical coherence tomography" and "OCT" in conjunction with other terms. We utilized the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study design (PICOS) method to define our study eligibility criteria. RESULTS Initial results were 3155. In conclusion, there were only 27 studies which met our selection criteria. We decided to allocate the 27 selected items into three groups: healthy mucosa; benign, premalignant, and malignant lesions; and oral manifestations of systemic therapies or pathological conditions. CONCLUSIONS Although the OCT is an easy-to-perform test and it offers an attractive diagnostic and monitoring prospect for soft tissues of the oral cavity, further studies are needed to complete the current knowledge of this imaging technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrica Gentile
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania - Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Claudio Maio
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania - Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Romano
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania - Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Laino
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania - Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Alberta Lucchese
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania - Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
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Lee AMD, Cahill L, Liu K, MacAulay C, Poh C, Lane P. Wide-field in vivo oral OCT imaging. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 6:2664-74. [PMID: 26203389 PMCID: PMC4505717 DOI: 10.1364/boe.6.002664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We have built a polarization-sensitive swept source Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) instrument capable of wide-field in vivo imaging in the oral cavity. This instrument uses a hand-held side-looking fiber-optic rotary pullback catheter that can cover two dimensional tissue imaging fields approximately 2.5 mm wide by up to 90 mm length in a single image acquisition. The catheter spins at 100 Hz with pullback speeds up to 15 mm/s allowing imaging of areas up to 225 mm(2) field-of-view in seconds. A catheter sheath and two optional catheter sheath holders have been designed to allow imaging at all locations within the oral cavity. Image quality of 2-dimensional image slices through the data can be greatly enhanced by averaging over the orthogonal dimension to reduce speckle. Initial in vivo imaging results reveal a wide-field view of features such as epithelial thickness and continuity of the basement membrane that may be useful in clinic for chair-side management of oral lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony M. D. Lee
- Department of Integrative Oncology - Cancer Imaging Unit, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada
| | - Lucas Cahill
- Department of Integrative Oncology - Cancer Imaging Unit, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada
| | - Kelly Liu
- Department of Integrative Oncology - Cancer Imaging Unit, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada
| | - Calum MacAulay
- Department of Integrative Oncology - Cancer Imaging Unit, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada
| | - Catherine Poh
- Department of Integrative Oncology - Cancer Imaging Unit, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada
- Faculty of Dentistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Pierre Lane
- Department of Integrative Oncology - Cancer Imaging Unit, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada
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Yoon Y, Jang WH, Xiao P, Kim B, Wang T, Li Q, Lee JY, Chung E, Kim KH. In vivo wide-field reflectance/fluorescence imaging and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography of human oral cavity with a forward-viewing probe. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 6:524-35. [PMID: 25780742 PMCID: PMC4354576 DOI: 10.1364/boe.6.000524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
We report multimodal imaging of human oral cavity in vivo based on simultaneous wide-field reflectance/fluorescence imaging and polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT) with a forward-viewing imaging probe. Wide-field reflectance/fluorescence imaging and PS-OCT were to provide both morphological and fluorescence information on the surface, and structural and birefringent information below the surface respectively. The forward-viewing probe was designed to access the oral cavity through the mouth with dimensions of approximately 10 mm in diameter and 180 mm in length. The probe had field of view (FOV) of approximately 5.5 mm in diameter, and adjustable depth of field (DOF) from 2 mm to 10 mm by controlling numerical aperture (NA) in the detection path. This adjustable DOF was to accommodate both requirements for image-based guiding with high DOF and high-resolution, high-sensitivity imaging with low DOF. This multimodal imaging system was characterized by using a tissue phantom and a mouse model in vivo, and was applied to human oral cavity. Information of surface morphology and vasculature, and under-surface layered structure and birefringence of the oral cavity tissues was obtained. These results showed feasibility of this multimodal imaging system as a tool for studying oral cavity lesions in clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeoreum Yoon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
| | - Won Hyuk Jang
- Division of Integrative Biosciences and Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
| | - Peng Xiao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
| | - Bumju Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
| | - Taejun Wang
- Division of Integrative Biosciences and Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
| | - Qingyun Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
| | - Ji Youl Lee
- Department of Urology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137–040,
South Korea
| | - Euiheon Chung
- Department of Medical System Engineering and School of Mechatronics, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-712,
South Korea
| | - Ki Hean Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
- Division of Integrative Biosciences and Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784,
South Korea
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Greening GJ, Istfan R, Higgins LM, Balachandran K, Roblyer D, Pierce MC, Muldoon TJ. Characterization of thin poly(dimethylsiloxane)-based tissue-simulating phantoms with tunable reduced scattering and absorption coefficients at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2014; 19:115002. [PMID: 25387084 PMCID: PMC4227531 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.19.11.115002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Optical phantoms are used in the development of various imaging systems. For certain applications, the development of thin phantoms that simulate the physical size and optical properties of tissue is important. Here, we demonstrate a method for producing thin phantom layers with tunable optical properties using poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) as a substrate material. The thickness of each layer (between 115 and 880 μm) was controlled using a spin coater. The reduced scattering and absorption coefficients were controlled using titanium dioxide and alcohol-soluble nigrosin, respectively. These optical coefficients were quantified at six discrete wavelengths (591, 631, 659, 691, 731, and 851 nm) at varying concentrations of titanium dioxide and nigrosin using spatial frequency domain imaging. From the presented data, we provide lookup tables to determine the appropriate concentrations of scattering and absorbing agents to be used in the design of PDMS-based phantoms with specific optical coefficients. In addition, heterogeneous phantoms mimicking the layered features of certain tissue types may be fabricated from multiple stacked layers, each with custom optical properties. These thin, tunable PDMS optical phantoms can simulate many tissue types and have broad imaging calibration applications in endoscopy, diffuse optical spectroscopic imaging, and optical coherence tomography, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gage J. Greening
- University of Arkansas, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
| | - Raeef Istfan
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Laura M. Higgins
- Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Kartik Balachandran
- University of Arkansas, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
| | - Darren Roblyer
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Mark C. Pierce
- Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Timothy J. Muldoon
- University of Arkansas, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Timothy J. Muldoon, E-mail:
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