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Thapa D, Tavakolian P, Zhou G, Zhang A, Abdelgawad A, Shokouhi EB, Sivagurunathan K, Mandelis A. Three-dimensional thermophotonic super-resolution imaging by spatiotemporal diffusion reversal method. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadi1899. [PMID: 38134277 PMCID: PMC10745684 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi1899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Spatial super-resolution in thermophotonic imaging was achieved using a combination of spatial second-derivative forming, spatial gradient adaptive filtering, and Richardson-Lucy deconvolution in conjunction with the construction of an experimental point spread function. When implemented through enhanced truncation-correlation photothermal coherence tomography (eTC-PCT), it was possible to restore blurred infrared thermophotonic images to their prediffusion optical resolution state. This modality was tested in various biological applications and proved to be capable of imaging fine axial cracks in human teeth, well-patterned anatomical subsurface structures of a mouse brain, and neovascularization in a mouse thigh due to the rapid proliferation of cancer cells. This modality was found to be immune to optical scattering and could reveal the true spatial extent of biological features at subsurface depths that conventional thermal imaging cannot reach because of limitations imposed by the physics of spreading diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damber Thapa
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Pantea Tavakolian
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - George Zhou
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Alan Zhang
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Asser Abdelgawad
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Elnaz Baradaran Shokouhi
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Koneswaran Sivagurunathan
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute for Advanced Non-Destructive and Non-Invasive Diagnostic Technologies (IANDIT), University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Andreas Mandelis
- Center for Advanced Diffusion-Wave and Photoacoustic Technologies, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute for Advanced Non-Destructive and Non-Invasive Diagnostic Technologies (IANDIT), University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
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Choi W, Park B, Choi S, Oh D, Kim J, Kim C. Recent Advances in Contrast-Enhanced Photoacoustic Imaging: Overcoming the Physical and Practical Challenges. Chem Rev 2023. [PMID: 36642892 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
For decades now, photoacoustic imaging (PAI) has been investigated to realize its potential as a niche biomedical imaging modality. Despite its highly desirable optical contrast and ultrasonic spatiotemporal resolution, PAI is challenged by such physical limitations as a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), diminished image contrast due to strong optical attenuation, and a lower-bound on spatial resolution in deep tissue. In addition, contrast-enhanced PAI has faced practical limitations such as insufficient cell-specific targeting due to low delivery efficiency and difficulties in developing clinically translatable agents. Identifying these limitations is essential to the continuing expansion of the field, and substantial advances in developing contrast-enhancing agents, complemented by high-performance image acquisition systems, have synergistically dealt with the challenges of conventional PAI. This review covers the past four years of research on pushing the physical and practical challenges of PAI in terms of SNR/contrast, spatial resolution, targeted delivery, and clinical application. Promising strategies for dealing with each challenge are reviewed in detail, and future research directions for next generation contrast-enhanced PAI are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonseok Choi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Byullee Park
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongwook Choi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghyeon Oh
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongbeom Kim
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Chulhong Kim
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Convergence IT Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Medical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, and Medical Device Innovation Center, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang37673, Republic of Korea
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Barbosa RCS, Mendes PM. A Comprehensive Review on Photoacoustic-Based Devices for Biomedical Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:9541. [PMID: 36502258 PMCID: PMC9736954 DOI: 10.3390/s22239541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The photoacoustic effect is an emerging technology that has sparked significant interest in the research field since an acoustic wave can be produced simply by the incidence of light on a material or tissue. This phenomenon has been extensively investigated, not only to perform photoacoustic imaging but also to develop highly miniaturized ultrasound probes that can provide biologically meaningful information. Therefore, this review aims to outline the materials and their fabrication process that can be employed as photoacoustic targets, both biological and non-biological, and report the main components' features to achieve a certain performance. When designing a device, it is of utmost importance to model it at an early stage for a deeper understanding and to ease the optimization process. As such, throughout this article, the different methods already implemented to model the photoacoustic effect are introduced, as well as the advantages and drawbacks inherent in each approach. However, some remaining challenges are still faced when developing such a system regarding its fabrication, modeling, and characterization, which are also discussed.
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Borges FDS, Moraes FJH, Pereira Neto MA, d'Almeida JRM, Bento AC, Cella N. Photoacoustic spectroscopy applied in the monitoring of photocuring process in epoxy diacrylate resins: Positive effect. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francis de Souza Borges
- Instituto Politécnico, IPRJ Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, UERJ Nova Friburgo RJ Brazil
| | | | | | - José Roberto Moraes d'Almeida
- Departamento de Engenharia Química e de Materiais Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, PUC‐Rio Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | | | - Norberto Cella
- Instituto Politécnico, IPRJ Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, UERJ Nova Friburgo RJ Brazil
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Kang D. Photoacoustic signal-to-noise ratio comparison for pulse and continuous waveforms of very low optical fluence. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2022; 27:076006. [PMID: 36451701 PMCID: PMC9321197 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.27.7.076006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE A majority in the photoacoustic (PA) community unconditionally accepts that pulse PA signals show much higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) than continuously excited PA signals. However, we indicate this existing notion would not be valid for very low optical-fluence light-emiting diodes (LEDs)/laser diodes (LDs)-based PA systems. AIM We demonstrate in theory and simulation that when the optical fluence of PA-excitation waveforms is much lower than the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) maximum permission exposure (MPE), matched filtered PA signals from chirp waveforms show higher SNRs than those of pulse train waveforms. APPROACH We theoretically derive the PA SNR expression considering the pulse fluence reduction factor based on the ANSI MPE. We investigate and analyze SNR ratios of the pulse train and chirp-waveform matched filtered PA signals with conceptual understanding. We also perform brute-force simulations to extract PA SNRs for the verification of the result. RESULTS The brute-force simulations show that the matched filtering with chirp waveforms could achieve better SNRs than pulse train waveforms for very low-fluence PA systems. As the fluence is smaller, the SNR of the matched filtered PA signals is more dominant than that of pulse trains in a wider PA data acquisition time range. In addition, estimated SNR ratios adopting actual parameters of LED/LD-based pulse train PA systems in previous literature support the finding of this paper. CONCLUSIONS The result can extend the possibility of applying various continuous waveform techniques already studied in the conventional radar technology to PA systems of limited optical power, which would diversify and expedite the research and development of LED/LD-based, compact, and cost-effective PA systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- DongYel Kang
- Hanbat National University, School of Basic Sciences, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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Sun Z, Du J. Suppression of motion artifacts in intravascular photoacoustic image sequences. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 12:6909-6927. [PMID: 34858688 PMCID: PMC8606127 DOI: 10.1364/boe.440975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Intravascular photoacoustic (IVPA) imaging is an image-based imaging modality for the assessment of atherosclerotic plaques. Successful application of IVPA for in vivo coronary arterial imaging requires one overcomes the challenge of motion artifacts associated with the cardiac cycle. We propose a method for correcting artifacts owing to cardiac motion, which are observed in sequential IVPA images acquired by the continuous pullback of the imaging catheter. This method groups raw photoacoustic signals into subsets corresponding to similar phases in the cardiac cycles. Thereafter, the sequential images are reconstructed, by representing the initial pressure distribution on the vascular cross-sections based on the clustered frames of signals by time reversal. Results of simulation data demonstrate the efficacy of this method in suppressing motion artifacts. Qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the method indicate an enhancement of the image quality. Comparison results reveal that this method is computationally efficient in motion correction compared with the image-based gating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Sun
- Department of Electronic and Communication Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Power Internet of Things Technology, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, Hebei, China
| | - Jiejie Du
- Department of Electronic and Communication Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Power Internet of Things Technology, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, Hebei, China
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Huang S, Blutke A, Feuchtinger A, Klemm U, Zachariah Tom R, Hofmann SM, Stiel AC, Ntziachristos V. Functional multispectral optoacoustic tomography imaging of hepatic steatosis development in mice. EMBO Mol Med 2021; 13:e13490. [PMID: 34411447 PMCID: PMC8422073 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202013490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing worldwide prevalence of obesity, fatty liver diseases and the emerging understanding of the important roles lipids play in various other diseases is generating significant interest in lipid research. Lipid visualization in particular can play a critical role in understanding functional relations in lipid metabolism. We investigated the potential of multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) as a novel modality to non-invasively visualize lipids in laboratory mice around the 930nm spectral range. Using an obesity-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) mouse model, we examined whether MSOT could detect and differentiate different grades of hepatic steatosis and monitor the accumulation of lipids in the liver quantitatively over time, without the use of contrast agents, i.e. in label-free mode. Moreover, we demonstrate the efficacy of using the real-time clearance kinetics of indocyanine green (ICG) in the liver, monitored by MSOT, as a biomarker to evaluate the organ's function and assess the severity of NAFLD. This study establishes MSOT as an efficient imaging tool for lipid visualization in preclinical studies, particularly for the assessment of NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Huang
- Chair of Biological ImagingSchool of Medicine, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM)Technical University of MunichGermany
- Institute of Biological and Medical ImagingHelmholtz Zentrum München (GmbH)NeuherbergGermany
| | - Andreas Blutke
- Research Unit Analytical PathologyHelmholtz Zentrum München (GmbH)NeuherbergGermany
| | - Annette Feuchtinger
- Research Unit Analytical PathologyHelmholtz Zentrum München (GmbH)NeuherbergGermany
| | - Uwe Klemm
- Chair of Biological ImagingSchool of Medicine, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM)Technical University of MunichGermany
| | - Robby Zachariah Tom
- Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration ResearchHelmholtz Zentrum München (GmbH)NeuherbergGermany
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IVLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
| | - Susanna M Hofmann
- Institute of Diabetes and Regeneration ResearchHelmholtz Zentrum München (GmbH)NeuherbergGermany
| | - Andre C Stiel
- Chair of Biological ImagingSchool of Medicine, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM)Technical University of MunichGermany
| | - Vasilis Ntziachristos
- Chair of Biological ImagingSchool of Medicine, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM)Technical University of MunichGermany
- Institute of Biological and Medical ImagingHelmholtz Zentrum München (GmbH)NeuherbergGermany
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Yao J, Wang LV. Perspective on fast-evolving photoacoustic tomography. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2021; 26:JBO-210105-PERR. [PMID: 34196136 PMCID: PMC8244998 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.26.6.060602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Acoustically detecting the rich optical absorption contrast in biological tissues, photoacoustic tomography (PAT) seamlessly bridges the functional and molecular sensitivity of optical excitation with the deep penetration and high scalability of ultrasound detection. As a result of continuous technological innovations and commercial development, PAT has been playing an increasingly important role in life sciences and patient care, including functional brain imaging, smart drug delivery, early cancer diagnosis, and interventional therapy guidance. AIM Built on our 2016 tutorial article that focused on the principles and implementations of PAT, this perspective aims to provide an update on the exciting technical advances in PAT. APPROACH This perspective focuses on the recent PAT innovations in volumetric deep-tissue imaging, high-speed wide-field microscopic imaging, high-sensitivity optical ultrasound detection, and machine-learning enhanced image reconstruction and data processing. Representative applications are introduced to demonstrate these enabling technical breakthroughs in biomedical research. CONCLUSIONS We conclude the perspective by discussing the future development of PAT technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Yao
- Duke University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Lihong V. Wang
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pasadena, California, United States
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Jin H, Zheng Z, Liu S, Zheng Y. Evaluation of Reconstruction Methodology for Helical Scan Guided Photoacoustic Endoscopy. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING 2020; 39:4198-4208. [PMID: 32755852 DOI: 10.1109/tmi.2020.3014410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Photoacoustic endoscopy (PAE), combining both advantages of optical contrast and acoustic resolution, can visualize the chemical-specific optical information of tissues inside human-body. Recently, its corresponding reconstruction methods have been extensively researched. However, most of them are limited on cylindrical scan trajectories, rather than a helical scan which is more clinically practical. On this note, this article proposes a methodology of imaging reconstruction and evaluation for helical scan guided PAE. Different from traditional reconstruction method, synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT), our method reconstructs image using wavefield extrapolation which significantly improves computational efficiency and even takes only 0.25 seconds for 3-D reconstructions. In addition, the proposed evaluation methodology can estimate the resolutions and deviations of reconstructed images in advance, and then can be used to optimize the PAE scan parameters. Groups of simulations as well as ex-vivo experiments with different scan parameters are provided to fully demonstrate the performance of the proposed techniques. The quantitatively measured angular resolutions and deviations agree well with our theoretical derivation results D√{rs2 +h2} / [1.25(rs rd +h2)] (rad) and -h l / (rs rd +h2) (rad), respectively D,rd, rs,h and l represent transducer diameter, radius of scan trajectory, radius of source position, unit helical pitch and the distance from targets to helical scan plane, respectively). This theoretical result also suits for circular and cylindrical scan in case of h = 0 .
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Guo H, Li Y, Qi W, Xi L. Photoacoustic endoscopy: A progress review. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2020; 13:e202000217. [PMID: 32935920 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202000217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Endoscopy has been widely used in biomedical imaging and integrated with various optical and acoustic imaging modalities. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI), one of the fastest growing biomedical imaging modalities, is a noninvasive and nonionizing method that owns rich optical contrast, deep acoustic penetration depth, multiscale and multiparametric imaging capability. Hence, it is preferred to miniaturize the volume of PAI and develop an emerged endoscopic imaging modality referred to as photoacoustic endoscopy (PAE). It has been developed for more than one decade since the first report of PAE. Unfortunately, until now, there is no mature photoacoustic endoscopic technique recognized in clinic due to various technical limitations. To address this concern, recent development of new scanning mechanisms, adoption of novel optical/acoustic devices, utilization of superior computation methods and exploration of multimodality strategies have significantly promoted the progress of PAE toward clinic. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed recent progresses in single- and multimodality PAE with new physics, mechanisms and strategies to achieve practical devices for potential applicable scenarios including esophageal, gastrointestinal, urogenital and intravascular imaging. We ended this review with challenges and prospects for future development of PAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Guo
- School of Physics, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Weizhi Qi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Lei Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
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Kuniyil Ajith Singh M, Xia W. Portable and Affordable Light Source-Based Photoacoustic Tomography. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E6173. [PMID: 33138296 PMCID: PMC7663770 DOI: 10.3390/s20216173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid imaging modality that offers the advantages of optical (spectroscopic contrast) and ultrasound imaging (scalable spatial resolution and imaging depth). This promising modality has shown excellent potential in a wide range of preclinical and clinical imaging and sensing applications. Even though photoacoustic imaging technology has matured in research settings, its clinical translation is not happening at the expected pace. One of the main reasons for this is the requirement of bulky and expensive pulsed lasers for excitation. To accelerate the clinical translation of photoacoustic imaging and explore its potential in resource-limited settings, it is of paramount importance to develop portable and affordable light sources that can be used as the excitation light source. In this review, we focus on the following aspects: (1) the basic theory of photoacoustic imaging; (2) inexpensive light sources and different implementations; and (3) important preclinical and clinical applications, demonstrated using affordable light source-based photoacoustics. The main focus will be on laser diodes and light-emitting diodes as they have demonstrated promise in photoacoustic tomography-the key technological developments in these areas will be thoroughly reviewed. We believe that this review will be a useful opus for both the beginners and experts in the field of biomedical photoacoustic imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithun Kuniyil Ajith Singh
- Research and Business Development Division, CYBERDYNE INC., Stationsplein 45, A4.004, 3013 AK Rotterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Wenfeng Xia
- School of Biomedical Engineering& Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, King’s Health Partners, St Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, UK
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