Density estimation of Yangtze finless porpoises using passive acoustic sensors and automated click train detection

Echolocation clicks of free-ranging Indo-Pacific finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) in Hainan waters

The echolocation clicks of free-ranging Indo-Pacific finless porpoises (IPFPs, Neophocaena phocaenoides) have been rarely studied in the wild. This paper aims at describing the echolocation-click characteristics of IPFPs and examining whether IPFPs adapt their sonar system to the habitats in Hainan waters, China. The echolocation clicks were recorded using a 13 elements star-shaped array of hydrophones. A total of 65 on-axis clicks were identified and analyzed. IPFPs use echolocation clicks with a source level (SL) of 158 ± 9 dB re: 1 μPa peak-peak, mean peak, and centroid frequency of 134 ± 3 kHz, -3 dB bandwidth of 14 ± 2 kHz and produce at inter-click intervals of 104 ± 51 ms. The results relative to other porpoises show that finless porpoises in Hainan waters produce clicks with moderate SLs and high peak frequency. These results could be useful in detecting the presence and estimating the density of IPFPs during passive acoustic monitoring in the study area and serve to shed light on the interpopulation variation of click characteristics of finless porpoises as well.

Description of the first acoustic recording of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) from the northern straits of Malacca, Malaysia (L)

Relatively little is known about spinner dolphins in Malaysian waters and the wider Southeast Asian region. This note represents the first known acoustic recording of the species sighted opportunistically in the northern Straits of Malacca. Over a brief 20 min sighting, 46 whistles were recorded and four tonal types were detected, with 54.4% being upsweep whistles. The whistle duration ranged from 36 to 977 ms and the frequency ranged from 6.6 to 23.8 kHz. Fifty-seven click trains with a mean interclick interval of 41.5 ± 19.3 ms were detected. These findings provide a baseline for future regional acoustic research on this species.

The Click Production of Captive Yangtze Finless Porpoises (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaorientalis) Is Influenced by Social and Environmental Factors

Simple Summary

Yangtze finless porpoises’ high-frequency clicks have often been studied and used for wild population surveys. However, the influence of captive environmental and social variables on Yangtze finless porpoises’ production of such signals has never been investigated. In the present study, the click production of a group of captive Yangtze finless porpoises was analyzed across various contexts. This click production was significantly impacted by temporal factors (season), social factors (social separation), and environmental factors (training sessions, presence of enrichment, noise, presence of visitors). The patterns found in this study may be useful for further monitoring of the welfare of captive groups of Yangtze finless porpoises (e.g., welfare assessments) as well as for improving wild surveys (e.g., more accurate interpretation of click density).

Abstract

Yangtze finless porpoises use high-frequency clicks to navigate, forage, and communicate. The way in which click production may vary depending on social or environmental context has never been investigated. A group of five captive Yangtze finless porpoises was monitored for one year, and 107 h of audio recordings was collected under different conditions. Using a MATLAB-generated interface, we extracted click density (i.e., number of clicks per minute) from these recordings and analyzed its variation depending on the context. As expected, click density increased as the number of animals present increased. The click density did not exhibit diurnal variations but did have seasonal variations, with click density being highest in summer and fall. Yangtze finless porpoises produced more clicks when socially separated than when not (136% more), during training/feeding sessions than outside of such sessions (312% more), when enrichment was provided (265% more on average), and when noisy events occurred rather than when no unusual event occurred (22% more). The click density decreased when many visitors were present in the facility (up to 35% less). These results show that Yangtze finless porpoises modulate their click production depending on the context and suggest that their echolocation activity and their emotional state may be linked to these changes. Such context-dependent variations also indicate the potential usefulness of monitoring acoustical activity as part of a welfare assessment tool in this species. Additionally, the click density variation found in captivity could be useful for understanding click rate variations of wild populations that are hardly visible.

Modelling the broadband propagation of marine mammal echolocation clicks for click-based population density estimates

Passive acoustic monitoring with widely-dispersed hydrophones has been suggested as a cost-effective method to monitor population densities of echolocating marine mammals. This requires an estimate of the area around each receiver over which vocalizations are detected-the "effective detection area" (EDA). In the absence of auxiliary measurements enabling estimation of the EDA, it can be modelled instead. Common simplifying model assumptions include approximating the spectrum of clicks by flat energy spectra, and neglecting the frequency-dependence of sound absorption within the click bandwidth (narrowband assumption), rendering the problem amenable to solution using the sonar equation. Here, it is investigated how these approximations affect the estimated EDA and their potential for biasing the estimated density. EDA was estimated using the passive sonar equation, and by applying detectors to simulated clicks injected into measurements of background noise. By comparing model predictions made using these two approaches for different spectral energy distributions of echolocation clicks, but identical click source energy level and detector settings, EDA differed by up to a factor of 2 for Blainville's beaked whales. Both methods predicted relative density bias due to narrowband assumptions ranged from 5% to more than 100%, depending on the species, detector settings, and noise conditions.

Acoustic occurrence detection of a newly recorded Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin population in waters southwest of Hainan Island, China

In 2014, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins were recorded for the first time in waters southwest of Hainan Island, China. In this paper, the temporal occurrence of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins in this region was detected by stationary passive acoustic monitoring. During the 130-day observation period (from January to July 2016), 1969 click trains produced by Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins were identified, and 262 ten-minute recording bins contained echolocation click trains of dolphins, of which 70.9% were at night and 29.1% were during the day. A diurnal rhythm with a nighttime peak in acoustic detections was found. Passive acoustic detections indicated that the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins frequently occurred in this area and were detected mainly at night. This information may be relevant to conservation efforts for these dolphins in the near future.

Comparing Distribution of Harbour Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) Derived from Satellite Telemetry and Passive Acoustic Monitoring

Cetacean monitoring is essential in determining the status of a population. Different monitoring methods should reflect the real trends in abundance and patterns in distribution, and results should therefore ideally be independent of the selected method. Here, we compare two independent methods of describing harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) relative distribution pattern in the western Baltic Sea. Satellite locations from 13 tagged harbour porpoises were used to build a Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model of suitable habitats. The data set was subsampled to one location every second day, which were sufficient to make reliable models over the summer (Jun-Aug) and autumn (Sep-Nov) seasons. The modelled results were compared to harbour porpoise acoustic activity obtained from 36 static acoustic monitoring stations (C-PODs) covering the same area. The C-POD data was expressed as the percentage of porpoise positive days/hours (the number of days/hours per day with porpoise detections) by season. The MaxEnt model and C-POD data showed a significant linear relationship with a strong decline in porpoise occurrence from west to east. This study shows that two very different methods provide comparable information on relative distribution patterns of harbour porpoises even in a low density area.

Documenting and Assessing Dolphin Calls and Ambient and Anthropogenic Noise Levels via PAM and a SPL Meter

Song Meter SM2M marine recorders were deployed to document dolphin calls and ambient and anthropogenic noise. Recordings from Bimini were split into 2-h segments; no segment was without dolphin calls. At Dolphin Encounters, average noise levels ranged from 110 to 125 dB; the highest source level was 147.98 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m. Average ambient-noise levels documented at 4 sites in Guam were below 118 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m. These data were compared with values from a custom-built sound pressure level (SPL) meter and confirm that the SM2M recorder is a useful tool for assessing animal calls and ambient and anthropogenic noise levels.

Acoustically invisible feeding blue whales in Northern Icelandic waters

Fixed passive acoustic monitoring can be used for long-term recording of vocalizing cetaceans. Both presence monitoring and animal density estimation requires the call rates and sound source levels of vocalizations produced by single animals. In this study, blue whale calls were recorded using acoustic bio-logging systems in Skjálfandi Bay off Húsavík, Northeast Iceland, in June 2012. An accelerometer was attached to individual whales to monitor diving behavior. During 21 h recording two individuals, 8 h 45 min and 13 h 2 min, respectively, 105 and 104 lunge feeding events and four calls were recorded. All recorded calls were down-sweep calls ranging from 105 to 48 Hz. The sound duration was 1-2 s. The source level was estimated to be between 158 and 169 dB re 1μPa rms, assuming spherical sound propagation from the possible sound source location to the tag. The observed sound production rates and source levels of individual blue whales during feeding were extremely small compared with those observed previously in breeding grounds. The feeding whales were nearly acoustically invisible. The function of calls during feeding remains unknown.

Acoustic discrimination between harbor porpoises and delphinids by using a simple two-band comparison

A simple discrimination method between Delphinidae and Phocoenidae based on the comparison of the intensity ratios of two band frequencies (130 and 70 kHz) is proposed. Biosonar signals were recorded at the Istanbul Strait (Bosphorus) in Turkey. Simultaneously, the presence of the species was confirmed by visual observation. Two types of thresholds of two-band intensity ratios, fixed and dynamic threshold, were tested for identification. The correct detection and false alarm rates for porpoises were 0.55 and 0.06 by using the fixed threshold and 0.74 and 0.08 by using the dynamic threshold, respectively. When the dynamic threshold was employed, the appropriate threshold changed depending on the mix ratio of recorded sounds from both Delphinidae and Phocoenidae. Even under biased mix ratios from 26% to 82%, the dynamic threshold worked with >0.80 correct detection and <0.20 false alarm rates, whereas the fixed threshold did not. The proposed method is simple but quantitative, which can be applicable for any broadband recording system, including a single hydrophone with two frequency band detectors.

Acoustic capture-recapture method for towed acoustic surveys of echolocating porpoises

Passive acoustic monitoring for cetaceans mainly employ fixed-location methods or point transect samplings; an acoustic survey from a moving platform to conduct line transects is less common. In this study, acoustic capture-recapture by combining a double-observer method with line transect sampling was performed to observe Yangtze finless porpoises. Two acoustic devices were towed with the distance between them varying 0.5 to 89.5 m. The conditional probabilities that both devices would detect the porpoises within the same time window were calculated. In a 1-s time window, it became smaller as the distance between the devices increased, approaching zero when the distance between them was more than 50 m. It was considered that the devices with less than 50 m distance detected the same signals from the same animals, which means the identical detection. When the distance between them is too great, the recapture rate is reduced and the incidence of false matching may increase. Thus, a separation distance of around 50 m between two devices in acoustic capture-recapture of Yangtze finless porpoises was recommended. Note that the performance of the double detections can change depending on the particular device used and on animal behaviors such as vocalizing interval, ship avoidance.

To see or not to see: investigating detectability of Ganges River dolphins using a combined visual-acoustic survey

Detection of animals during visual surveys is rarely perfect or constant, and failure to account for imperfect detectability affects the accuracy of abundance estimates. Freshwater cetaceans are among the most threatened group of mammals, and visual surveys are a commonly employed method for estimating population size despite concerns over imperfect and unquantified detectability. We used a combined visual-acoustic survey to estimate detectability of Ganges River dolphins (Platanista gangetica gangetica) in four waterways of southern Bangladesh. The combined visual-acoustic survey resulted in consistently higher detectability than a single observer-team visual survey, thereby improving power to detect trends. Visual detectability was particularly low for dolphins close to meanders where these habitat features temporarily block the view of the preceding river surface. This systematic bias in detectability during visual-only surveys may lead researchers to underestimate the importance of heavily meandering river reaches. Although the benefits of acoustic surveys are increasingly recognised for marine cetaceans, they have not been widely used for monitoring abundance of freshwater cetaceans due to perceived costs and technical skill requirements. We show that acoustic surveys are in fact a relatively cost-effective approach for surveying freshwater cetaceans, once it is acknowledged that methods that do not account for imperfect detectability are of limited value for monitoring.

Neglect of bandwidth of Odontocetes echo location clicks biases propagation loss and single hydrophone population estimates

Passive acoustic monitoring with a single hydrophone has been suggested as a cost-effective method to monitor population density of echolocating marine mammals, by estimating the distance at which the hydrophone is able to intercept the echolocation clicks and distinguish these from the background. To avoid a bias in the estimated population density, this method relies on an unbiased estimate of the detection range and therefore of the propagation loss (PL). When applying this method, it is common practice to estimate PL at the center frequency of a broadband echolocation click and to assume this narrowband PL applies also to the broadband click. For a typical situation this narrowband approximation overestimates PL, underestimates the detection range and consequently overestimates the population density by an amount that for fixed center frequency increases with increasing pulse bandwidth and sonar figure of merit.

A multimodal detection model of dolphins to estimate abundance validated by field experiments

Abundance estimation of marine mammals requires matching of detection of an animal or a group of animal by two independent means. A multimodal detection model using visual and acoustic cues (surfacing and phonation) that enables abundance estimation of dolphins is proposed. The method does not require a specific time window to match the cues of both means for applying mark-recapture method. The proposed model was evaluated using data obtained in field observations of Ganges River dolphins and Irrawaddy dolphins, as examples of dispersed and condensed distributions of animals, respectively. The acoustic detection probability was approximately 80%, 20% higher than that of visual detection for both species, regardless of the distribution of the animals in present study sites. The abundance estimates of Ganges River dolphins and Irrawaddy dolphins fairly agreed with the numbers reported in previous monitoring studies. The single animal detection probability was smaller than that of larger cluster size, as predicted by the model and confirmed by field data. However, dense groups of Irrawaddy dolphins showed difference in cluster sizes observed by visual and acoustic methods. Lower detection probability of single clusters of this species seemed to be caused by the clumped distribution of this species.

Variation in the production rate of biosonar signals in freshwater porpoises

The biosonar (click train) production rate of ten Yangtze finless porpoises and their behavior were examined using animal-borne data loggers. The sound production rate varied from 0 to 290 click trains per 10-min time interval. Large individual differences were observed, regardless of body size. Taken together, however, sound production did not differ significantly between daytime and nighttime. Over the 172.5 h of analyzed recordings, an average of 99.0% of the click trains were produced within intervals of less than 60 s, indicating that during a 1-min interval, the number of click trains produced by each porpoise was typically greater than one. Most of the porpoises exhibited differences in average swimming speed and depth between day and night. Swimming speed reductions and usage of short-range sonar, which relates to prey-capture attempts, were observed more often during nighttime. However, biosonar appears to be affected not only by porpoise foraging, but also by their sensory environment, i.e., the turbid Yangtze River system. These features will be useful for passive acoustic detection of the porpoises. Calculations of porpoise density or abundance should be conducted carefully because large individual differences in the sound production rate will lead to large estimation error.

Estimating animal population density using passive acoustics

Reliable estimation of the size or density of wild animal populations is very important for effective wildlife management, conservation and ecology. Currently, the most widely used methods for obtaining such estimates involve either sighting animals from transect lines or some form of capture-recapture on marked or uniquely identifiable individuals. However, many species are difficult to sight, and cannot be easily marked or recaptured. Some of these species produce readily identifiable sounds, providing an opportunity to use passive acoustic data to estimate animal density. In addition, even for species for which other visually based methods are feasible, passive acoustic methods offer the potential for greater detection ranges in some environments (e.g. underwater or in dense forest), and hence potentially better precision. Automated data collection means that surveys can take place at times and in places where it would be too expensive or dangerous to send human observers.

Here, we present an overview of animal density estimation using passive acoustic data, a relatively new and fast-developing field. We review the types of data and methodological approaches currently available to researchers and we provide a framework for acoustics-based density estimation, illustrated with examples from real-world case studies. We mention moving sensor platforms (e.g. towed acoustics), but then focus on methods involving sensors at fixed locations, particularly hydrophones to survey marine mammals, as acoustic-based density estimation research to date has been concentrated in this area. Primary among these are methods based on distance sampling and spatially explicit capture-recapture. The methods are also applicable to other aquatic and terrestrial sound-producing taxa.

We conclude that, despite being in its infancy, density estimation based on passive acoustic data likely will become an important method for surveying a number of diverse taxa, such as sea mammals, fish, birds, amphibians, and insects, especially in situations where inferences are required over long periods of time. There is considerable work ahead, with several potentially fruitful research areas, including the development of (i) hardware and software for data acquisition, (ii) efficient, calibrated, automated detection and classification systems, and (iii) statistical approaches optimized for this application. Further, survey design will need to be developed, and research is needed on the acoustic behaviour of target species. Fundamental research on vocalization rates and group sizes, and the relation between these and other factors such as season or behaviour state, is critical. Evaluation of the methods under known density scenarios will be important for empirically validating the approaches presented here.

Widespread passive acoustic detection of Yangtze finless porpoise using miniature stereo acoustic data-loggers: a review

Data on distribution, abundance, ecology, and behavior are essential for conservation and management of endangered animals in the wild. Yangtze finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis) is an endangered small odontocete species, living exclusively in the Yangtze River and its connecting Poyang and Dongting Lakes. Frequent production of high-frequency bio-sonar signals allows the animal to be detectable using passive acoustic methods. Recently, a stereo acoustic event data-logger (A-tag) has been used extensively to detect the animal by using both fixed and mobile platforms. The passive acoustic monitoring methods were not only successful in detecting the presence of animals, but also in counting, localizing, and tracking phonating individuals. Underwater behavior observed acoustically helped to assess possible effects of vessels on the animals during acoustic surveys.