Reproducibility of pacing profiles in elite swimmers

Analysis of the fastest backstroke age group swimmers competing in the World Masters Championships 1986-2024

Backstroke has been thoroughly investigated in the context of sports science. However, we have no knowledge about the nationalities of the fastest age group backstroke swimmers. Therefore, the present study intended to investigate the nationalities of the fastest backstroke swimmers. For all World Masters Championships held between 1986 and 2024, the year of competition, the first and last name, the age, and the age group, and both the stroke and the distance were recorded for each swimmer. Descriptive data were presented using mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values, and confidence intervals. The top ten race times for each swimming distance and sex were identified for descriptive purposes. Nationalities were then grouped into six categories: the top five nationalities with the most appearances in the backstroke swimming top ten times by distance each year and one group consisting of all other nationalities. The Kruskal-Wallis test compared nationality differences, followed by Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons to identify specific distinctions. Between 1986 and 2024, most age group backstroke swimmers (39.6%) competed in the 50 m event (11,964, 6206 women, and 5,758 men), followed by the 100 m event (32.3%, n = 9764, 5157 women, and 4607 men), and the 200 m event (28.1%, n = 8483, 4511 women, and 3,972 men). Germany had the highest number of top ten female swimmers in the 50 m backstroke distance. Brazil had the highest number of top ten male swimmers in the same distance. The USA had the highest number of female and male swimmers among the top ten in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke distances. Germany and Great Britain were the only countries with swimmers in the top ten for all female backstroke distances. Brazil, the USA, Italy, and Germany were the countries that had swimmers in the top ten for all male backstroke distances. In summary, the fastest backstroke age group swimmers originated from Germany, Brazil, USA, Great Britain, and Italy, where differences between the sexes and race distances exist.

Running Variability in Marathon-Evaluation of the Pacing Variables

Background and Objectives: Pacing analyses for increasingly popular long-distance running disciplines have been in researchers' spotlight for several years. In particular, assessing pacing variability in long-distance running was hardly achievable since runners must repeat long-running trials for several days. Potential solutions for these problems could be multi-stage long-distance running disciplines. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the long-distance running variability as well as the reliability, validity, and sensitivity of the variables often used for pacing analyses. Materials and Methods: This study collected the split times and finish times for 20 participants (17 men and three women; mean age 55.5 years ± 9.5 years) who completed the multiday marathon running race (five marathons in 5 days), held as part of the Bretzel Ultra Tri in Colmar, France, in 2021. Seven commonly used pacing variables were subsequently calculated: Coefficient of variation (CV), Change in mean speed (CS), Change in first lap speed (CSF), Absolute change in mean speed (ACS), Pace range (PR), Mid-race split (MRS), and First 32 km-10 km split (32-10). Results: Multi-stage marathon running showed low variability between days (Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) > 0.920), while only the CV, ACS, and PR variables proved to have moderate to good reliability (0.732 < ICC < 0.785). The same variables were also valid (r > 0.908), and sensitive enough to discern between runners of different performance levels (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Researchers and practitioners who aim to explore pacing in long-distance running should routinely utilize ACS, CV, and PR variables in their analyses. Other examined variables, CS, CSF, MRS, and 32-10, should be used cautiously. Future studies might try to confirm these results using different multi-stage event's data as well as by expanding sensitivity analysis to age and gender differences.

Stroke-Specific Swimming Critical Speed Testing: Balancing Feasibility and Scientific Rigour

This study aimed to assess the reliability of a two-distance critical speed protocol in the specialist strokes of national-level swimmers and understand the practical feasibility of extending the protocol to increase its validity. Thirty-two national-level swimmers (butterfly n = 7; backstroke n = 8; breaststroke n = 7; front crawl n = 10) swum three 200-m and three 400-m performance trials over a three-week period. Critical speed and supra-critical speed distance capacity were computed from the linear modelling of the distance-time relationship. Swimmers were subsequently asked whether they felt they could or would want to complete an 800-m trial as part of a three-distance critical speed protocol to enhance validity. Both 200-m and 400-m performances (coefficient of variation of < 2%) and derived critical speed (typical error of ≤ 0.04 m·s-1; coefficient of variation of < 4%) were reliable for all strokes, while supra-critical speed distance capacity (typical error from 4 to 9 m; coefficient of variation from 13 to 45%) was not reliable. Response rates to the follow-up questions were 100%. Few butterfly swimmers said they felt they could complete an 800-m performance trial (39%), with more positive responses for breaststroke (71%), backstroke (100%), and front crawl swimmers (100%). Butterfly swimmers were significantly less likely to say they could or would want to complete an 800-m trial than backstroke and front crawl swimmers (p < 0.05). Including a third distance 800-m trial to increase critical speed validity would not be acceptable to butterfly swimmers, would be challenging to breaststroke swimmers, but would be acceptable to front crawl and backstroke swimmers.

Pacing Behavior Development in Adolescent Swimmers: A Large-Scale Longitudinal Data Analysis

PURPOSE

This study aimed to use a large-scale longitudinal design to investigate the development of the distribution of effort (e.g., pacing) in adolescent swimmers, specifically disentangling the effects of age and experience and differentiating between performance levels in adulthood.

METHODS

Season best times and 50-m split times of 100- and 200-m freestyle swimmers from five continents were gathered between 2000 and 2021. Included swimmers competed in a minimum of three seasons between 12 and 24 yr old (5.3 ± 1.9 seasons) and were categorized by performance level in adulthood (elite, sub-elite, high-competitive; 100-m: n = 3498 (47% female); 200-m: n = 2230 (56% female)). Multilevel models in which repeated measures (level 1) were nested within individual swimmers (level 2) were estimated to test the effects of age, race experience, and adult performance level on the percentage of total race time spent in each 50-m section ( P < 0.05).

RESULTS

In the 100-m, male swimmers develop a relatively faster first 50-m when becoming older. This behavior also distinguishes elite from high-competitive swimmers. No such effects were found for female swimmers. Conversely, more experienced male and female swimmers exhibit a slower initial 50-m. With age and race experience, swimmers develop a more even velocity distribution in the 200-m. Adolescent swimmers reaching the elite level adopt a more even behavior compared with high-competitive. This differentiation occurs at a younger age in female (>13 yr) compared with male (>16 yr) swimmers.

CONCLUSIONS

Pacing behavior development throughout adolescence is driven by age-related factors besides race experience. Swimmers attaining a higher performance level during adulthood exhibit a pacing behavior that better fits the task demands during adolescence. Monitoring and individually optimizing the pacing behavior of young swimmers is an important step toward elite performance.

Pacing Strategy Models in 1500 m Male Freestyle Long-Course Swimming on the Basis of the All-Time Ranking

In long-distance swimming competitions, a pacing strategy is of considerable importance for the final result and for sporting success. The paper presents the pacing strategy models of the all-time best competitors in 1500 m male freestyle long-course swimming. The top 60 scores were retrieved from official websites. The results were divided into six groups of ten swim times each, with splits of 15 × 100, 5 × 300, 3 × 500, and 2 × 750 m, and then analysis of variance was used. The main effects of the competitor group order revealed with the analysis of variance were statistically significant (p < 0.001). The group effect size turned out very high (η_p² = 0.95). Consecutive groups of competitors achieved significantly slower results. The magnitude of the interaction effects of the competitor group order and distance splits was moderate (η_p² of 0.05-0.09) and statistically not significant. The main effects of the 3 × 500, 5 × 300, and 15 × 100 m splits were high and very high (η_p² of 0.33-0.75) and statistically significant (p < 0.001). The difference between the 2 × 750 m split was statistically not significant. The achieved values of the main effects led to the following trend. In the distance split, the first and last sections did not significantly differ from each other, nor did the middle sections. However, when the middle sections and the first and last sections were compared against each other, a significant discrepancy was observed. The pacing strategies of the best athletes in the history of the competition follow a very similar parabolic trend.

Stroke Kinematics, Temporal Patterns, Neuromuscular Activity, Pacing and Kinetics in Elite Breaststroke Swimming: A Systematic Review

Background

Breaststroke is a technically complex stroke characterised by discontinuous propulsive phases, large intracyclic velocity variation and low mean velocity. The performance of this stroke at an elite level is influenced by a number of biomechanical, physiological and psychological factors. The present systematic review aimed to synthesise the biomechanical factors influencing elite breaststroke swimming performance. This review aims to provide elite coaches and performance scientists with a breadth of knowledge from which training and racing interventions can be developed.

Methods

Electronic searches of Medline, Scopus and SPORTDiscus databases were conducted in May 2020 and March 2022. Search results that were peer-reviewed, published in English and published during or after the year 2000 were considered for review. The methodological rigour of studies was assessed using a risk of bias scale previously used for the evaluation of sports science research.

Results

Thirty-eight articles were included in the present review. Articles investigated elite breaststroke performance in relation to one of the following areas: stroke kinematics, temporal patterns, neuromuscular activity, pacing and kinetics.

Discussion

Kinematic, temporal and neuromuscular activity comparisons between groups of various race distance, performance or experience level, and athlete sex were common in the literature. These analyses demonstrated differences in stroke rate, stroke length, propulsive time, recovery time, glide time, sum of total integrated EMG and triceps brachii activation patterns between groups. The evaluation of various pacing strategies, and the relationship between kinetics and breaststroke performance was comparatively rare within the literature. Further research into the relationship between kinetics and breaststroke performance, and the manipulation of pacing strategy would increase the breadth of knowledge from which coaches and performance scientists can develop evidence-based training and racing interventions.

The association of end-spurt behaviour with seasonal best time in long-distance freestyle pool swimming

AbstractPurpose: To analyse the association of seasonal best time, distance and different performance levels with end-spurt behaviour in one swimming season.

METHODS

Race results in 800 m and 1500 m pool freestyle swimming in the season 2018/2019 including 14,930 races and 2,650 swimmers were obtained. The end-spurt for each race was determined by means of an End-Spurt Indicator (ESI). Subsequently, ESI was used as a dependent variable and influences were analysed using a linear mixed model with fixed effects for seasonal best time, distance, and performance level amongst others.

RESULTS

In the 800 m and 1500 m races swimmers showed a mean ESI of 2.08 (95% CI: 2.02 to 2.13) and 3.68 (95% CI: 3.59 to 3.76), respectively. There was a significant association between seasonal best time and ESI, with a better seasonal best time showing a greater ESI (F = 70.5, P < .001, f²= 0.04). A significant effect on greater ESI was also observed for longer distance (F = 1067.5, P < .001, f²= 0.06) and higher performance level (F = 91.1, P < .001, f²= 0.02). Elite swimmers had a mean ESI of 5.47 (95% CI: 4.91 to 6.03), sub-elite swimmers of 3.74 (95% CI: 3.53 to 3.95) and competitive swimmers of 2.41 (95% CI: 2.37 to 2.46).

CONCLUSION

A more pronounced end-spurt is associated with seasonal best time in long-distance pool swimming, higher performance level of the swimmer and longer race distance.

Profiling of elite male junior 50 m freestyle sprinters: Understanding the speed-time relationship

The aim of this study was to (1) analyze and compare the race performance and stability between the fastest and slowest male swimmers during the 50 m freestyle event, and (2) to understand the speed-time relationship in this race. The performances (start, clean swim, and finish) of 86 swimmers (divided into two tiers: best and poorest performances) who competed in the 50 m freestyle event in the 2019 long course LEN European Junior Championships were analyzed. The swimming speed presented a significant difference between the groups (tier #1 vs tier #2) in all sections of the race, in which the start (S0-15 m: p < 0.001, d = 1.64) and finish sections (S45-50: p < 0.001, d = 1.63) showed the greatest differences. Significant variances over the race sections were noted for both groups in all variables, in which the swimming speed was the variable with the highest variance (tier #1: p < 0.001, η2  = 0.72; tier #2: p < 0.001, η2  = 0.82). Both groups exhibited a similar normative stability, with the fastest swimmers tending to be the best in all sections. The fit analysis produced a cubic speed-time relationship. Notwithstanding, junior swimmers who raced the 50 m freestyle can be considered to have an all-out pacing. This information is of paramount importance for coaches and swimmers to understand the intra-lap race performance in this short event.

Pacing Strategies of 1500 m Freestyle Swimmers in the World Championships According to Their Final Position

In 1500 m freestyle swimming races, pacing is generally represented by a parabolic or U-shaped curve indicating that swimming velocity is greatest at the start and the last laps of the race while swimmers maintain an even pace through the middle section of the race. However, there is no information to determine if 1500 m race winners select pacing different to other, less successful swimmers within the same competition. Therefore, this investigation aimed to describe the pacing strategies adopted by 1500 m freestyle competitive swimmers in World Championships (long course), from 2003 to 2019 to determine the most effective pacing to obtain victory or a medal. The official overall and split times for 1500 m freestyle races of the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) were obtained from the website of this organization. In total, data of 143 swimming performances (71 male and 72 female) were extracted. With the split times, lap times, and position were calculated across the race. To determine differences in the pacing between best- and worst-ranked finalist, swimmers in each race were divided into four groups based on the final position (1st vs. 2nd vs. 3rd vs. 4–8th). All the lap times of the winners of the race were faster than those of participants classified as 4–8th position for men and women races (p < 0.05). However, there were no differences in lap velocity among the different positions achieved at the end of the race when it was normalized by average race velocity. Additionally, there were no differences in the lap-to-lap variability among swimmers with different positions at the end of the race. In summary, both men and women elite swimmers selected parabolic pacing consisting of a fast start in the first lap, an even pace close to their average race velocity in the mid-section of the race (from 50 to 1400 m), followed by an end spurt in the final lap(s). This pattern was very similar in all finalists irrespective of the final position in the race. Hence, the obtaining of a medal in the World Championships was associated to possessing a faster average race velocity rather than a specific pacing profile through the race.

The Influence of Muscle Fiber Typology on the Pacing Strategy of 200-m Freestyle Swimmers

PURPOSE

To determine the influence of muscle fiber typology (MFT) on the pacing strategy of elite swimmers competing in the 200-m freestyle event.

METHOD

The top 3 career-best performances from 25 elite 200-m freestyle swimmers were analyzed-12 women (1:58.0 [0:01.3] min:s) and 13 men (1:48.4 [0:02.5]). Muscle carnosine concentration was quantified by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles and expressed as a carnosine aggregate z score (CAZ score) relative to an age- and gender-matched nonathlete control group to estimate MFT. Linear regression models were employed to examine the influence of MFT on the percentage of overall race time spent in each 50-m lap.

RESULTS

Swimmers with a higher CAZ score spent a greater percentage of race time in lap 3 compared with swimmers with a lower CAZ score (0.1%, 0.0% to 0.2%; mean, 90% confidence interval, P = .02). For every 1% increase in the percentage of race time spent in lap 1, the percentage of race time spent in lap 3 decreased by 0.4% for swimmers with a higher CAZ score (0.2% to -0.5%, P = .00, r = -.51), but not for swimmers with a lower CAZ score (-0.1%, -0.3% to 0.1%, P = .28, r = -.18). The percentage of race time spent in lap 4 decreased by 0.8% for higher-CAZ-score swimmers (-0.5% to -1.0%, P = .00, r = -.66) and by 0.9% for lower-CAZ-score swimmers (-0.6% to -1.3%, P = .00, r = -.65) when lap 1 percentage increased by 1%.

CONCLUSION

MFT may influence the pacing strategy of swimmers in the 200-m freestyle event, which provides an avenue for maximizing individualized pacing strategies of elite swimmers.

Pacing and Hazard Score of Elite Open Water Swimmers During a 5-km Indoor Pool Race

PURPOSE

The sensation of fatigue experienced at a certain point of the race is an important factor in the regulation of pacing. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is considered one of the main mediators utilized by athletes to modify pacing. The aim was to analyze the relationship between pacing and RPE of elite open water swimmers during national indoor pool championships.

METHODS

A total of 17 elite open water swimmers (males, n = 9; females, n = 8) agreed to provide RPE every 500 m during the finals of the national championships 5-km indoor pool race. Time splits, stroke rate, and RPE were collected every 500 m. The Hazard score was calculated by multiplying the momentary RPE by the remaining fraction of the race. Athletes were placed in one of two categories: medalists or nonmedalists. For all variables, separate mixed analysis of variances (P ≤ .05) with repeated measures were used considering the splits (ie, every 500 m) as within-subjects factor and the groups (ie, medalists and nonmedalists) as between-subjects factor.

RESULTS

Average swimming speed showed a significant main effect for split for both males and females (P < .001). A significant interaction was observed between average swimming speed and groups for females (P = .032). RPE increased in both groups (P < .001) with no difference observed between groups. However, the female nonmedalists showed a disproportionate nonlinear increase in RPE (5.20 [2.31]) halfway through the event that corresponded to the point where they started significantly decreasing speed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study show different pacing strategies adopted by medalists and nonmedalists despite a similar RPE.

A Novel Method to Characterize the Pacing Profile of Elite Male 1500-m Freestyle Swimmers

PURPOSE

Pacing, or the distribution of energy expenditure, is particularly important in swimming; however, there is limited research examining pacing profiles in long-distance freestyle events. This study aimed to characterize the pacing profiles of elite male 1500-m freestyle swimmers using a novel method to provide a detailed analysis of different race segments.

METHODS

The race data for 327 male 1500-m freestyle long-course races between 2010 and 2019 were analyzed retrospectively. The raw 50-m split times for each lap were converted to a percentage of overall race time. The races were classified as a fast-, average-, or slow-start strategy (laps 1-2); as an even, negative, or positive pacing strategy (laps 3-28); and as a fast-, average-, or slow-finish strategy (laps 29-30) to give an overall pacing profile.

RESULTS

Slow- and average-start strategies were associated with faster overall 1500-m times than a fast-start strategy (mean = -21.2 s; 90% confidence interval, -11.4 to -32.3 s, P = .00). An even pacing strategy in laps 3 to 28 yielded faster overall 1500-m times than a positive pacing strategy (-8.4 s, -3.9 to -13.0 s, P = .00). The overall 1500-m times did not differ substantially across the finish strategies (P = .99). The start strategy differed across age groups and nationalities, where younger swimmers and swimmers from Australia and Great Britain typically spent a lower percentage of race time in laps 1 to 2 (faster start strategy; -0.10%, -0.01% to -0.23%, P ≤ .02).

CONCLUSION

Adopting a relatively slower start strategy helps conserve energy for the latter stages of a 1500-m freestyle race.

Analysis of end-spurt behaviour in elite 800-m and 1500-m freestyle swimming

To analyse the influence of distance, time point of competition, round and finishing position on end-spurt behaviour in swimming. Race results in 800-m and 1500-m freestyle swimming from the last 8 World Championships and 5 Olympic Games (1998-2016) including 1433 races and 528 swimmers were obtained. The end-spurt for each race was determined by means of an End-Spurt Indicator (ESI). The ESI was calculated by dividing the difference between the swim velocity of the last lap (SVLL) and the mean swim velocity of the middle part of the race (SVMP) by the respective individual standard deviation of SVMP. Subsequently, ESI was used as a dependent variable and influences were analysed using a linear mixed model with fixed effects for distance, time point of competition, round and finishing position. An end-spurt was evident in most swims for both race distances. The mean change in swim velocity between the middle part of the race and the last lap was 0.06 ± 0.02 m/s (1.2 ± 0.2 s) in the 800-m and 0.07 ± 0.02 m/s (1.5 ± 0.2 s) in the 1500-m. The finishing position within a race significantly affected the ESI (P < .001, t = 7.28). Specifically, when analysing finals only, ESI was significantly greater in medallists (5.76; quantile: 3.61 and 8.06) compared to non-medallists (4.06; quantile: 1.83 and 6.82; P = .001). The between-subject standard deviation was 1.66 (Cl: 1.42-1.97) with a relative variance component of 23%, while 77% of ESI variance remained unexplained. This is the first study using a newly developed indicator of end-spurt behaviour demonstrating that particularly medallists have a more pronounced end-spurt compared to non-medallists.

Pacing and Performance in Swimming: Differences Between Individual and Relay Events

PURPOSE

Although pacing is considered crucial for success in individual swimming events, there is a lack of research examining pacing in relays. The authors investigated the impact of start lap and pacing strategy on swimming performance and whether these strategies differ between relays and the corresponding individual event.

METHODS

Race data for 716 relay (4 × 200-m freestyle) finals from 14 international competitions between 2010 and 2018 were analyzed retrospectively. Each swimmer's individual 200-m freestyle season's best time for the same year was used for comparison. Races were classified as a fast, average, or slow start lap strategy (lap 1) and as an even, negative, or positive pacing strategy (laps 2-4) to give an overall race strategy, for example, average start lap even pacing.

RESULTS

A fast start lap strategy was associated with slower 200-m times (range 0.5-0.9 s, P ≤ .04) irrespective of gender, and positive pacing led to slower 200-m (0.4-0.5 s, P ≤ .03) times in females. A fast start lap strategy led to positive pacing in 71% of swimmers. Half of the swimmers changed pacing strategy, with 13% and 7% more female and male swimmers, respectively, displaying positive pacing in relays compared with individual events. In relays, a fast start lap and positive pacing was utilized more frequently by swimmers positioned on second to fourth relay legs (+13%) compared with lead-off leg swimmers (+3%).

CONCLUSION

To maximize performance, swimmers should be more conservative in the first lap and avoid unnecessary alterations in race strategy in relay events.

Effects of Postexercise Sauna Bathing on Recovery of Swim Performance

PURPOSE

Despite indications of positive effects of sauna (SAU) interventions, effects on performance recovery are unknown. The aim of the current study was to investigate acute effects of SAU bathing after an intensive training session on recovery of swim performance.

METHODS

In total, 20 competitive swimmers and triathletes (3 female and 17 male) with a minimum of 2 y of competition experience (national level or higher) participated in the study. Athletes completed an intensive training session followed by either a SAU bathing intervention or a placebo (PLAC) condition in a randomized order. SAU consisted of 3 × 8 min of SAU bathing at 80-85°C, whereas during PLAC, athletes applied a deidentified, pH-balanced massage oil while passively resting in a seated position. Prior to training, swimmers conducted a 4 × 50-m all-out swim test that was repeated on the following morning. Furthermore, subjective ratings of fatigue and recovery were measured.

RESULTS

Swimmers performed significantly worse after SAU (4 × 50-m pre-post difference: +1.69 s) than after PLAC (-0.66 s; P = .02), with the most pronounced decrease in the first 50 m (P = .04; +2.7%). Overall performance of 15 athletes deteriorated (+2.6 s). The subjective feeling of stress was significantly higher after SAU than after PLAC (P = .03).

CONCLUSION

Based on published findings, the smallest substantial change in swimming performance is an increase in time of more than 1.2 s; thus, the observed reductions appear relevant for competitive swimmers. According to the current results, coaches and athletes should be careful with postexercise SAU if high-intensity training and/or competitions are scheduled on the following day.

Upper-limb kinematics and kinetics imbalances in the determinants of front-crawl swimming at maximal speed in young international level swimmers

Short-distance swimmers may exhibit imbalances in their upper-limbs’ thrust (differences between the thrust produced by each upper-limb). At maximal speed, higher imbalances are related to poorer performances. Additionally, little is known about the relationship between thrust and swim speed, and whether hypothetical imbalances exist in the speed achieved while performing each upper-limb arm-pull. This could be a major issue at least while swimming at maximal speed. This study aimed to: (1) verify a hypothetical inter-upper limb difference in the determinants related to front-crawl at maximal swim speed, and; (2) identify the main predictors responsible for the swim speed achieved during each upper-limb arm-pull. Twenty-two male swimmers of a national junior swim team (15.92 ± 0.75 years) were recruited. A set of anthropometric, dry-land strength, thrust and speed variables were assessed. Anthropometrics identified a significant difference between dominant and non-dominant upper-limbs (except for the hand surface area). Dry-land strength presented non-significant difference (p < 0.05) between the dominant and non-dominant upper-limbs. Overall, thrust and speed variables revealed a significant difference (p < 0.05) between dominant and non-dominant upper-limbs over a 25 m time-trial in a short-course pool. Swimmers were not prone to maintaining the thrust and speed along the trial where a significant variation was noted (p < 0.05). Using multilevel regression, the speed achieved by each upper-limb identified a set of variables, with the peak speed being the strongest predictor (dominant: estimate = 0.522, p < 0.001; non-dominant: estimate = 0.756, p < 0.001). Overall, swimmers exhibit significant differences between upper-limbs determinants. The upper-limb noting a higher dry-land strength also presented a higher thrust, and consequently higher speed. Coaches should be aware that sprint swimmers produce significant differences in the speed achieved by each one of their upper-limbs arm-pull.

Pacing During 200-m Competitive Masters Swimming

Breen, D, Powell, C, and Anderson, R. Pacing during 200-m competitive masters swimming. J Strength Cond Res 34(7): 1903-1910, 2020-Pacing strategies are key to overall performance outcome, particularly in swimming given the large resistive properties of water. However, no studies examining how swimming stroke, gender, age, or performance level affect pacing strategies during 200-m races. This study aimed to examine masters athletes pacing strategies categorized by stroke, gender, age, and performance level. Data were retrieved from World and European masters swimming championships and contained data for 4,272 performances. Performances were coded for stroke, gender, age, and performance classification (PC). Performance classification was based on comparison to the appropriate masters world record. Performances were then normalized, with split times being expressed as a percentage faster or slower than average 50-m split time to determine relative pace. Coefficient of variation (CV) of 50-m time was examined across splits. The main effect for stroke was examined at each split, whereas gender, age, and PC were examined for split-1 pace and CV. An alpha level of 0.05 was set to denote statistical significance. A main effect for stroke was identified at each split (all p < 0.001; (Equation is included in full-text article.)-split-1 = 0.292; (Equation is included in full-text article.)-split-2 = 0.040; (Equation is included in full-text article.)-split-3 = 0.058; (Equation is included in full-text article.)-split-4 = 0.162). A main effect for PC was identified for split-1 pace and CV within all strokes (all p < 0.001), except for breaststroke (both p > 0.775). Masters athletes exhibit different pacing patterns across strokes, whereas lower ranked athletes also display less even pacing and a faster relative start compared with higher-ranked athletes. Individual analyses of pacing strategies may be necessary.

Pacing Profiles and Competitive Performance of Elite Female 400-m Freestyle Swimmers

Lipinska, P, and Hopkins, WG. Pacing profiles and competitive performance of elite female 400-m freestyle swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 218-224, 2020-Pacing can impact competitive endurance performance. The objective of this study was to determine relationships between pacing parameters and competitive performance of elite female 400-m freestyle swimmers. Publicly available websites provided 50-m split and final times for 381 swims of 20 elite female swimmers in over 150 national and international competitions between 2004 and 2016. Most pacing profiles displayed negative quadratic curvature, with the fifth of the 8 laps being the median slowest. The mean times for the first and last laps were faster than predicted by the quadratic by 5.6 and 1.9%, respectively, and lap-to-lap variability was 0.65%. Scatter plots of each swimmer's final time often showed no obvious relationships with their pacing parameters, suggesting that swimmers compensated for changes in one parameter with changes in another. However, some plots showed a U shape or linear trend that allowed tentative identification of optimum values of the pacing parameters. In these plots, it was apparent that about half the swimmers might make small to moderate improvements (up to ∼1%) by changing the slope or curvature of their pacing profile or by changing time in the first or last laps. This approach for characterizing pacing profiles to identify possible improvements might be appropriate to assess pacing in other sports with multiple laps, frequent competitions, and relatively constant environmental conditions.

Pacing in lane-based head-to-head competitions: A systematic review on swimming

Athletes' energy distribution over a race (e.g. pacing behaviour) varies across different sports. Swimming is a head-to-head sport with unique characteristics, such as propulsion through water, a multitude of swimming stroke types and lane-based racing. The aim of this paper was to review the existing literature on pacing behaviour in swimming. According to PRISMA guidelines, 279 articles were extracted using the PubMed and Web of Science databases. After the exclusion process was conducted, 16 studies remained. The findings of these studies indicate that pacing behaviour is influenced by the race distance and stroke type. Pacing behaviours in swimming and time-trial sports share numerous common characteristics. This commonality can most likely be attributed to the lane-based racing set-up. The low efficiency of swimming resulting from propulsion through the water induces a rapid accumulation of blood lactate, prompting a change in swimmers' biomechanical characteristics, with the goal of minimising changes in velocity throughout the race. Although the literature on youth swimmers is scarce, youth swimmers demonstrate more variable pacing profiles and have more difficulty in selecting the most beneficial energy distribution.

Sex Differences in Performance and Pacing Strategies During Sprint Skiing

Purpose: This study aimed to compare performance and pacing strategies between elite male and female cross-country skiers during a sprint competition on snow using the skating technique.

Methods: Twenty male and 14 female skiers completed an individual time-trial prolog (TT) and three head-to-head races (quarter, semi, and final) on the same 1,572-m course, which was divided into flat, uphill and downhill sections. Section-specific speeds, choice of sub-technique (i.e., gear), cycle characteristics, heart rate and post-race blood lactate concentration were monitored. Power output was estimated for the different sections during the TT, while metabolic demand was estimated for two uphill camera sections and the final 50-m flat camera section.

Results: Average speed during the four races was ∼12.5% faster for males than females (P < 0.001), while speeds on the flat, uphill and downhill sections were ∼11, 18, and 9% faster for the males than females (all P < 0.001 for terrain, sex, and interaction). Differences in uphill TT speed between the sexes were associated with different sub-technique preferences, with males using a higher gear more frequently than females (P < 0.05). The estimated metabolic demand relative to maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O_2max) was similar for both sexes during the two uphill camera sections (∼129% of V˙O_2max) and for the final 50-m flat section (∼153% of V˙O_2max). Relative power output during the TT was 18% higher for males compared to females (P < 0.001) and was highly variable along the course for both sexes (coefficient of variation [CV] between sections 4–9 was 53%), while the same variation in heart rate was low (CV was ∼3%). The head-to-head races were ∼2.4% faster than the TT for both sexes and most race winners (61%) were positioned first already after 30 m of the race. No sex differences were observed during any of the races for heart rate or blood lactate concentration.

Conclusion: The average sex difference in sprint skiing performance was ∼12.5%, with varying differences for terrain-specific speeds. Moreover, females skied relatively slower uphill (at a lower gear) and thereby elicited more variation in their speed profiles compared to the males.

Effect of Different Feedback Modalities on Swimming Pace: Which Feedback Modality is Most Effective?

To compare the effect of three different feedback modalities on swimming pace, sixteen male swimmers and triathletes participated in this study. Each participant swam 3 x 400 m, one for each feedback modality, swimming front crawl at 80% of their individual swimming critical speed. Three feedback modalities were examined: self-pacing, real time visual feedback and real time voice feedback. The swimmers adopted a fast start in all feedback modalities. In the real time voice feedback modality, the data recorded during the second lap (200 m) showed a significant improvement of their swimming pace approaching the swimming pace intended (-1.47 s, p < .01, medium effect size 0.79). A significant improvement toward the swimming pace intended was also noticed at the third split time (300 m) (0.05 s, p < .01, large effect size 0.81) and at the fourth split time (400 m) (0.46 s, p < .01, medium effect size 0.76). In self-pacing, the swimmers were not able to swim in line with the swimming pace intended. In real time visual feedback modality, the swimmers did not show a significant improvement approaching the swimming pace intended. The results revealed that communication with the swimmers using the real time voice feedback induced a significant improvement in their swimming pace and could help the athletes to swim with accurate and consistent pace.

Pacing in Swimming: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Pacing strategy, or how energy is distributed during exercise, can substantially impact athletic performance and is considered crucial for optimal performance in many sports. This is particularly true in swimming given the highly resistive properties of water and low mechanical efficiency of the swimming action.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this systematic review was to determine the pacing strategies utilised by competitive swimmers in competition and their reproducibility, and to examine the impact of different pacing strategies on kinematic, metabolic and performance variables. This will provide valuable and practical information to coaches and sports science practitioners.

DATA SOURCES

The databases Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus and PubMed were searched for published articles up to 1 August 2017.

STUDY SELECTION

A total of 23 studies examining pool-based swimming competitions or experimental trials in English-language and peer-reviewed journals were included in this review.

RESULTS

In short- and middle-distance swimming events maintenance of swimming velocity is critical, whereas in long-distance events a low lap-to-lap variability and the ability to produce an end spurt in the final lap(s) are key. The most effective strategy in the individual medley (IM) is to conserve energy during the butterfly leg to optimise performance in subsequent legs. The pacing profiles of senior swimmers remain relatively stable irrespective of opponents, competition stage or type, and performance time.

CONCLUSION

Implementing event-specific pacing strategies should benefit the performance of competitive swimmers. Given differences between swimmers, there is a need for greater individualisation when considering pacing strategy selection across distances and strokes.

Elite Male and Female 800-m Runners' Display of Different Pacing Strategies During Season-Best Performances

PURPOSE

To analyze the pacing profiles of the world's top 800-m annual performances between 2010 and 2016, comparing men's and women's strategies.

METHODS

A total of 142 performances were characterized for overall race times and 0-to-200-m, 200-to-400-m, 400-to-600-m, and 600-to-800-m split times using available footage from YouTube. Only the best annual performance for each athlete was considered. Overall race and split speed were calculated so that each lap speed could be expressed as a percentage of the mean race speed.

RESULTS

The mean speed of the men's 800-m was 7.73 (0.06) m·s-1, with the 0-to-200-m split faster than the others. After the first split, the speed decreased significantly during the 3 subsequent splits (P < .001). The mean speed of the women's 800-m was 6.77 (0.05) m·s-1, with a significative variation in speed during the race (P < .001). The first split was faster than the others (P < .001). During the rest of the race, speed was almost constant, and no difference was observed between the other splits. Comparison between men and women revealed that there was an interaction between split and gender (P < .001), showing a different pacing behavior in 800-m competitions.

CONCLUSIONS

The world's best 800-m performances revealed an important difference in the pacing profile between men and women. Tactics could play a greater role in this difference, but physiological and behavioral characteristics are likely also important.

Pacing profile in the main international open-water swimming competitions

PURPOSE

Different aspects of pacing in endurance events have been investigated, however, there are very limited information on pacing strategies during open-water swimming. The aim was to describe and compare the pacing profile used by male and female open-water swimmers (OW-swimmers) during the 5-, 10- and 25 km races in the main international competitions.

METHODS

A total of 438 performances were analysed for 5 km, 579 for 10 km and 189 for 25 km, from 2012 to 2017. Swimmers were divided into four groups based on finishing time. G1 whose finishing times were within 0.5% of the winner's time, G2 between 0.51% and 1% slower than winner's time; G3 between 1.1% and 2% slower than winner's time; G4 over 2% of winner's time. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to verify the normal distribution of data and repeated measures ANOVA was performed.

RESULTS

G1 adopted a negative pacing and significantly increased the speed in the last split compared with the other groups during the 5-, 10- and 25-km races in both males and females (p < .001). During the 5- and 10-km race, the last split speed of G1 was significantly faster compared to the other groups in both males and females (p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

OW-swimmers that used a conservative approach remaining in G1 until the finish of the race, increase the possibility to win a medal in the main international competitions.

Effect of Intensified Endurance Training on Pacing and Performance in 4000-m Cycling Time Trials

Studies examining pacing strategies during 4000-m cycling time trials (TTs) typically ensure that participants are not prefatigued; however, competitive cyclists often undertake TTs when already fatigued. This study aimed to determine how TT pacing strategies and sprint characteristics of cyclists change during an intensified training period (mesocycle). Thirteen cyclists regularly competing in A- and B-grade cycling races and consistently training (>10 h/wk for 4 [1] y) completed a 6-wk training mesocycle. Participants undertook individually prescribed training, using training stress scores (TrainingPeaks, Boulder, CO), partitioned into a baseline week, a build week, 2 loading weeks (designed to elicit an overreached state), and 2 recovery weeks. Laboratory-based tests (15-s sprint and TT) and Recovery-Stress Questionnaire (RESTQ-52) responses were repeatedly undertaken over the mesocycle. TT power output increased during recovery compared with baseline and loading weeks (P = .001) with >6-W increases in mean power output (MPO) detected for 400-m sections (10% bins) from 1200 to 4000 m in recovery weeks. Decreases in peak heart rate (P < .001) during loading weeks and postexercise blood lactate (P = .005) during loading week 2 and recovery week 1 were detected. Compared with baseline, 15-s sprint MPO declined during loading and recovery weeks (P < .001). An interaction was observed between RESTQ-52 total stress score with a 15-s sprint (P = .003) and with a TT MPO (P = .04), indicating that participants who experienced greater stress during loading weeks exhibited reduced performance. To conclude, intensified endurance training diminished sprint performance but improved 4000-m TT performance, with a subtle change in MPO evident over the last 70% of TTs.

Pacing in age-group freestyle swimmers at The XV FINA World Masters Championships in Montreal 2014

Pacing strategies have been investigated for elite-standard freestyle swimmers, but little is known about pacing in age-group freestyle swimmers. We investigated changes in swimming time across distances in 4,481 women and men swimmers who competed in 100, 200, 400, and 800 m freestyle age groups from 25-29 years to 90-94 years in the FINA World Masters Championships 2014. In 100 to 800 m, there was a small lap×sex interaction (P < 0.001, 0.033 ≤ η² ≤ 0.045) whereby women had larger lap-to-lap changes in swimming time than men. From 100 to 800 m, there were moderate to large lap×age group interactions (P < 0.001, 0.054 ≤ η² ≤ 0.235), i.e., pacing patterns differed by age groups. There were small main effects of lap on time in 100, 200, 400 and 800 m freestyle events (P < 0.001, 0.033 ≤ η² ≤ 0.045). In summary, (i) the largest increase in swimming time occurred during the second lap and a decrease in time occurred during the last lap, except in the 100 m, and (ii) the effect of participants' sex on lap time indicated larger percentage changes of pacing in women than in men. These findings should help coaches to develop age- and event-tailored pacing strategies.

Freestyle race pacing strategies (400 m) of elite able-bodied swimmers and swimmers with disability at major international championships

Freestyle race pacing strategies (400 m) were compared between elite able-bodied swimmers and those with minimal physical (International Paralympic Committee S10 classification) and visual disabilities (International Paralympic Committee S13 classification). Data comprised 50-m lap splits and overall race times from 1176 400-m freestyle swims from World Championships, European Championships and Olympic/Paralympic Games between 2006 and 2012. Five pacing strategies were identified across groups (even, fast start, negative, parabolic and parabolic fast start), with negative and even strategies the most commonly adopted. The negative pacing strategy produced the fastest race times for all groups except for female S13 swimmers where an even strategy was most effective. Able-bodied groups swam faster than their S10 and S13 counterparts, with no differences between S10 and S13 groups. The results suggest adoption of multiple pacing strategies across groups, and even where impairments are considered minimal they are still associated with performance detriments in comparison to their able-bodied counterparts. The findings have implications for the planning and implementation of training related to pacing strategies to ensure optimal swimmer preparation for competition. Analogous performance levels in S10 and S13 swimmers also suggest a case for integrated competition of these classifications in 400-m freestyle swimming.

The Influence of Collective Behavior on Pacing in Endurance Competitions

A number of theoretical models have been proposed in recent years to explain pacing strategies observed in individual competitive endurance events. These have typically related to the internal regulatory processes that inform the making of decisions relating to muscular work rate. Despite a substantial body of research which has investigated the influence of collective group dynamics on individual behaviors in various animal species, this issue has not been comprehensively studied in individual athletic events. This is somewhat surprising given that athletes often directly compete in close proximity to one another, and that collective behavior has also been observed in other human environments including pedestrian interactions and financial market trading. Whilst the reasons for adopting collective behavior are not fully understood, collective behavior is thought to result from individual agents following simple local rules that result in seemingly complex large systems that act to confer some biological advantage to the collective as a whole. Although such collective behaviors may generally be beneficial, competitive endurance events are complicated by the fact that increasing levels of physiological disruption as activity progresses may compromise the ability of some individuals to continue to interact with other group members. This could result in early fatigue and relative underperformance due to suboptimal utilization of physiological resources by some athletes. Alternatively, engagement with a collective behavior may benefit all due to a reduction in the complexity of decisions to be made and a subsequent reduction in cognitive loading and mental fatigue. This paper seeks evidence for collective behavior in previously published analyses of pacing behavior and proposes mechanisms through which it could potentially be either beneficial, or detrimental to individual performance. It concludes with suggestions for future research to enhance understanding of this phenomenon.

Effects of training-induced fatigue on pacing patterns in 40-km cycling time trials

INTRODUCTION

In some endurance sports, athletes complete several competitions within a short period, resulting in accumulated fatigue. It is unclear whether fatigued athletes choose the same pacing pattern (PP) as when they have recovered.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to analyze effects of fatigue on PP of cyclists during a 40-km time trial (TT).

METHODS

Twenty-three male cyclists (28.8 ± 7.6 yr) completed three 40-km TT on a cycle ergometer. TT were conducted before (TT1) and after (TT2) a 6-d training period. A third TT was carried out after 72 h of recovery (TT3). Training days consisted of two cycling sessions: mornings, 1 h at 95% of lactate threshold or 3 × 5 × 30 s all-out sprint; afternoons, 3 h at 80% individual anaerobic threshold. Four-kilometer split times (min) and RPE were recorded during TT.

RESULTS

Performance decreased from TT1 to TT2 (65.7 ± 3.5 vs 66.7 ± 3.3 min; P < 0.05) and increased from TT2 to TT3 (66.7 ± 3.3 vs 65.5 ± 3.3 min; P < 0.01). PP showed a significant difference between TT1 and TT2 (P < 0.001) as well as between TT2 and TT3 (P < 0.01). PP in TT1 and TT3 showed no significant difference (P > 0.05). In TT1 and TT3, cyclists started faster in the first 4 km compared with TT2. RPE course showed no significant difference between TT (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Fatigue reversibly changes the PP of cyclists during a 40-km TT. Participants reduced their power output until premature exhaustion seemed very unlikely. This supports the assumption that pacing includes a combination of anticipation and feedback mechanisms.

Underwater and surface strategies of 200 m world level swimmers

Pacing strategies of elite swimmers have been consistently characterised from the average lap velocities. In the present study, we examined the racing strategies of 200 m world class-level swimmers with regard to their underwater and surface lap components. The finals and semi-finals of the 200 m races at the 2013 World Swimming Championships (Barcelona, Spain) were analysed by an innovative image-processing system (InThePool® 2.0). Free swimming velocities of elite swimmers typically decreased throughout the 200 m race laps (-0.12 m · s(-1), 95% CI -0.11 to -0.14 m · s(-1), P = 0.001, η(2) = 0.81), whereas underwater velocities, which were faster than free swimming, were not meaningfully affected by the race progress (0.02 m · s(-1), -0.01 to 0.04 m · s(-1), P = 0.01, η(2) = 0.04). When swimming underwater, elite swimmers typically travelled less distance (-0.66 m, -0.83 to -0.49 m, P = 0.001, η(2) = 0.34) from the first to the third turn of the race, although underwater distances were maintained on the backstroke and butterfly races. These strategies allowed swimmers to maintain their average velocity in the last lap despite a decrease in the free swimming velocity. Elite coaches and swimmers are advised to model their racing strategies by considering both underwater and surface race components.

Modeling parameters that characterize pacing of elite female 800-m freestyle swimmers

Pacing offers a potential avenue for enhancement of endurance performance. We report here a novel method for characterizing pacing in 800-m freestyle swimming. Websites provided 50-m lap and race times for 192 swims of 20 elite female swimmers between 2000 and 2013. Pacing for each swim was characterized with five parameters derived from a linear model: linear and quadratic coefficients for effect of lap number, reductions from predicted time for first and last laps, and lap-time variability (standard error of the estimate). Race-to-race consistency of the parameters was expressed as intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). The average swim was a shallow negative quadratic with slowest time in the eleventh lap. First and last laps were faster by 6.4% and 3.6%, and lap-time variability was ±0.64%. Consistency between swimmers ranged from low-moderate for the linear and quadratic parameters (ICC = 0.29 and 0.36) to high for the last-lap parameter (ICC = 0.62), while consistency for race time was very high (ICC = 0.80). Only ~15% of swimmers had enough swims (~15 or more) to provide reasonable evidence of optimum parameter values in plots of race time vs. each parameter. The modest consistency of most of the pacing parameters and lack of relationships between parameters and performance suggest that swimmers usually compensated for changes in one parameter with changes in another. In conclusion, pacing in 800-m elite female swimmers can be characterized with five parameters, but identifying an optimal pacing profile is generally impractical.

Increased variability of lap speeds: differentiating medalists and nonmedalists in middle-distance running and swimming events

PURPOSE

Previous literature has presented pacing data of groups of competition finalists. The aim of this study was to analyze the pacing patterns displayed by medalists and nonmedalists in international competitive 400-m swimming and 1500-m running finals.

METHODS

Split times were collected from 48 swimming finalists (four 100-m laps) and 60 running finalists (4 laps) in international competitions from 2004 to 2012. Using a cross-sectional design, lap speeds were normalized to whole-race speed and compared to identify variations of pace between groups of medalists and nonmedalists. Lap-speed variations relative to the gold medalist were compared for the whole field.

RESULTS

In 400-m swimming the medalist group demonstrated greater variation in speed than the nonmedalist group, being relatively faster in the final lap (P < .001; moderate effect) and slower in laps 1 (P = .03; moderate effect) and 2 (P > .001; moderate effect). There were also greater variations of pace in the 1500-m running medalist group than in the nonmedalist group, with a relatively faster final lap (P = .03; moderate effect) and slower second lap (P = .01; small effect). Swimming gold medalists were relatively faster than all other finalists in lap 4 (P = .04), and running gold medalists were relatively faster than the 5th- to 12th-placed athletes in the final lap (P = .02).

CONCLUSIONS

Athletes who win medals in 1500-m running and 400-m swimming competitions show different pacing patterns than nonmedalists. End-spurt-speed increases are greater with medalists, who demonstrate a slower relative speed in the early part of races but a faster speed during the final part of races than nonmedalists.

Factors influencing pacing in triathlon

Triathlon is a multisport event consisting of sequential swim, cycle, and run disciplines performed over a variety of distances. This complex and unique sport requires athletes to appropriately distribute their speed or energy expenditure (ie, pacing) within each discipline as well as over the entire event. As with most physical activity, the regulation of pacing in triathlon may be influenced by a multitude of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The majority of current research focuses mainly on the Olympic distance, whilst much less literature is available on other triathlon distances such as the sprint, half-Ironman, and Ironman distances. Furthermore, little is understood regarding the specific physiological, environmental, and interdisciplinary effects on pacing. Therefore, this article discusses the pacing strategies observed in triathlon across different distances, and elucidates the possible factors influencing pacing within the three specific disciplines of a triathlon.

Influence of pacing manipulation on performance of juniors in simulated 400-m swim competition

PURPOSE

To date, there has been limited research examining the influence of pacing pattern (PP) on middle-distance swimming performance. As such, the purpose of the current study was to examine the influence of PP manipulation on 400-m freestyle swimming performance.

METHODS

15 front-crawl swimmers (5 female, 10 male; age 18 ± 2 y) performed 3 simulated 400-m swimming events. The initial trial was self-selected pacing (PPSS). The following 2 trials were performed in a counterbalanced order and required participants to complete the first 100 m more slowly (PPSLOW: 4.5% ± 2.2%) or quickly (PPFAST: 2.4% ± 1.6%) than the PPSS trial. 50-m split times were recorded during each trial.

RESULTS

Overall performance time was faster in PPSS (275.0 ± 15.9 s) than in PPFAST (278.5 ± 16.4 s, P = .05) but not significantly different from PPSLOW (277.5 ± 16.2 s, P = .22). However, analysis for practical relevance revealed that pacing manipulation resulted in a "likely" (>88.2%) decrease in performance compared with PPSS.

CONCLUSION

Moderate manipulation of the starting speed during simulated 400-m freestyle races seems to affect overall performance. The observed results indicate that PPSS is optimal in most individuals, yet it seems to fail in some swimmers. Future research should focus on the identification of athletes possibly profiting from manipulations.