Reduced Endurance Capacity and Suboptimal Energy Availability in Top-Level Female Cyclists

Can period-related symptoms predict menstrual manipulation among Australian female cyclists?

This study explored the extent of menstrual manipulation and its associated impact on period-related symptoms and training disruptions in Australian Female Cyclists. 205 female cyclists, from recreational to elite level, participated in an online "Female Cyclist Questionnaire (FCQ)". The FCQ utilised a series of validated questionnaires to obtain demographic information and menstrual function of the respondents, and to investigate their menstrual manipulation habits and perceptions on how their period-related symptoms affected their well-being, mood, energy and training tolerance. More than 80% of the cyclists reported that their period-related symptoms impacted upon training and 41% made training adjustments based on these symptoms. Two-thirds of respondents thought their training should be phase-controlled yet only half discussed their hormonal cycles with their coaches. Menstrual manipulation was predicted by reduced "workout tolerance" in these cyclists (odds ratio = 0.632). Half of the respondents reported compromised ability to tolerate high-intensity interval training with period-related symptoms. Period pain, increased irritability, lower energy levels and more sugar cravings were commonly reported but did not predict menstrual manipulation. The data indicated that period-related symptoms are present in Australian female cyclists across all levels of participation. However, the perceived impact to training and subsequent behavioural changes varied among individuals.

Effects of In-Exercise Carbohydrate Supplementation on Prolonged High-Intensity Exercise Performance in Oral Contraceptive Users

PURPOSE

To examine the impact of oral contraceptive (OC) phases on performance, physiological, and subjective responses to prolonged, intensive exercise when carbohydrate (CHO) stores are reduced.

METHODS

Ten well-trained female cyclists using monophasic OC completed 4 identical trials (>150 min) under conditions of in-trial 60-g·h-1 CHO supplementation (CHO+) or placebo (CHO-) during the sugar- (SUG) and active-pill (ACT) phases of their OC cycle. Each trial comprised two 400-kcal time trials (TT) separated by 1 hour of submaximal cycling at first ventilatory threshold.

RESULTS

Change in completion time from TT1 to TT2 was minimized in CHO+ compared with CHO- (4.06 [2.55] vs 6.08 [5.33] min; P = .019, effect size = -0.36). An interaction effect of OC and CHO was observed for time to complete TT (P = .006), mean TT power (P = .002), mean TT heart rate (P = .002), and posttrial emotional balance (P = .020) and negative emotional state (P = .033). In ACT, mean TT power and heart rate were higher in CHO+ when compared with CHO-, resulting in faster TTs in CHO+ and improved posttrial emotional well-being. When CHO was not supplemented, TT power and heart rate were higher in SUG when compared with ACT, resulting in faster TTs in SUG and improved posttrial emotional balance.

CONCLUSION

CHO depletion during ACT negatively influenced TT performance and emotional well-being when compared with SUG. Irrespective of OC pill phase, CHO supplementation should be prioritized to sustain performance and improve postexercise recovery-stress balance.

Training Characteristics and Competitive Demands in Women Road Cyclists: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

To identify the main training characteristics and competitive demands in women's road cycling.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted on 5 databases according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guidelines. The articles had to be primary studies, written after 1990 with a sample of competitive women between the ages of 15 and 50. The Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies and the Oxford Levels of Evidence scales were used.

RESULTS

The search yielded 1713 articles, of which 20 were included. Studies on training and competitive demands (n = 5) found that both external and internal loads are higher in women than in men. Studies on strength and endurance training (n = 5) showed that both velocity-based and heavy-load strength training programs performed at least 2 days per week and including 3 to 4 lower-body exercises improved performance. Altitude-training studies (n = 3) found that "Live High-Train Low" was effective to increase performance during the first 9 days after the training camp. The 7 remaining studies focused on a range of topics. The methodological quality was strong for 12 studies and moderate for 8. In contrast, the level of evidence was high in 7 and low in the other 13.

CONCLUSIONS

Endurance training and competitive demands in women's road cycling are higher than those of men. Strength training is effective in women when the frequency, intensity, and number of exercises are appropriate, while altitude training should be completed a few days before competing. Further studies are warranted to better define the participants' competitive level, using a methodological design with a higher level of evidence.

Energy Availability Over One Athletic Season: An Observational Study Among Athletes From Different Sports

During the athletic season, changes in body composition occur due to fluctuations in energy expenditure and energy intake. Literature regarding changes of energy availability (EA) is still scarce. The aim was to estimate EA of athletes from nonweight and weight-sensitive sports during the athletic season (i.e., preparatory and competitive phase). Eighty-eight athletes (19.1 ± 4.2 years, 21.8 ± 2.0 kg/m2, 27% females, self-reported eumenorrheic) from five sports (basketball [n = 29]; handball [n = 7]; volleyball [n = 9]; swimming [n = 18]; and triathlon [n = 25]) were included in this observational study. Energy intake and exercise energy expenditure were measured through doubly labeled water (over 7 days and considering neutral energy balance) and metabolic equivalents of tasks, respectively. Fat-free mass (FFM) was assessed through a four-compartment model. EA was calculated as EA = (energy intake - exercise energy expenditure)/FFM. Linear mixed models, adjusted for sex, were performed to assess EA for the impact of time by sport interaction. Among all sports, EA increased over the season: basketball, estimated mean (SE): 7.2 (1.5) kcal/kg FFM, p < .001; handball, 14.8 (2.9) kcal/kg FFM, p < .001; volleyball, 7.9 (2.8) kcal/kg FFM, p = .006; swimming, 8.7 (2.0) kcal/kg FFM, p < .001; and triathlon, 9.6 (2.0) kcal/kg FFM, p < .001. Eleven athletes (12.5%) had clinical low EA at the preparatory phase and none during the competitive phase. During both assessments, triathletes' EA was below optimal, being lower than basketballers (p < .001), volleyballers (p < .05), and swimmers (p < .001). Although EA increased in all sports, triathlon's EA was below optimal during both assessments. Risk of low EA might be seasonal and resolved throughout the season, with higher risk during the preparatory phase. However, in weight-sensitive sports, namely triathlon, low EA is still present.

Comparison of Energy Expenditure Observed between Scheduled Activities in Collegiate Team-Sport Female Athletes

Energy needs of female team-sport athletes are poorly understood with no evidence highlighting differences present between scheduled activities. The purpose of this study was to examine the difference in energy expenditure between NCAA Division II female basketball (BBALL) and lacrosse (LAX) athletes during different scheduled team activities. Female BBALL (n = 13; 19.8 ± 1.3 yrs; 173.9 ± 13.6 cm; 74.6 ± 9.1kg; 27.1 ± 3.2%fat) and LAX (n = 20; 20.4 ± 1.8yrs; 168.4 ± 6.6cm; 68.8 ± 8.9kg; 27.9 ± 3.1%fat) athletes were outfitted with heart rate and activity monitors during four consecutive days on five different occasions (20 days total) across an entire academic year to assess differences in total daily activity energy expenditure (TDEE), activity energy expenditure (AEE), and physical activity level (PAL). Data were categorized by type of scheduled daily activities: Practice, Game, Conditioning, or Off. Independent of day type, TDEE, AEE, and PAL levels were greater (p < 0.05) in BBALL athletes. For each sport, TDEE, AEE, and PAL were significantly different (p < 0.05) between classified activity days. BBALL and LAX athletes experienced higher values on game days for TDEE, AEE, and PAL, with the lowest values experienced on off days. In conclusion, calculated levels of TDEE, AEE, and PAL in female collegiate BBALL and LAX athletes were determined to be different, irrespective of the scheduled activity.

Changes in Anthropometric and Performance Parameters in High-Level Endurance Athletes during a Sports Season

Several anthropometric and performance parameters related to aerobic metabolism are associated with performance in endurance runners and are modified according to the training performed. The objective of this study was to investigate the ergospirometric and body composition changes in endurance runners during a sports season in relation to their training. Twenty highly trained men endurance runners performed an incremental test until exhaustion (initial, and at 3, 6, and 9 months) on a treadmill to determine maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂ max), second ventilatory threshold (VT₂), and their associated running speeds. Skinfolds, perimeters, and weights were measured. No changes were obtained in VO₂ max or VT₂ during the study, although their associated running speeds increased (p < 0.05) after 3 months of the study. Decreases in fat mass (p < 0.05) and muscle mass (p < 0.05) were observed at the end of the season (9 months). Changes occurred in the different skinfolds according to the characteristics of the training performed during the season. In conclusion, vVO₂ max and vVT₂ increase with a greater volume of kilometres trained and can be adversely affected by loss of muscle mass.