To Run or Not to Run? Automatic Evaluations and Reflective Attitudes Toward Exercise

Maintain your mind, maintain your focus: Effects of focused attention and intensity in experienced runners

The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.

Affective associations towards running: fuzzy patterns of implicit-explicit interaction in young female runners and non-runners

Empirical evidence demonstrates that high concordance and low discrepancy of implicit and explicit affective processes facilitate consistent exercise behavior. Novice runners often have difficulties implementing their running behavior on a regular basis resulting in irregular running behavior. To investigate the potential value of affective associations 89 young female runners (regular and irregular) and non-runners were recruited. Affective associations towards running were measured through a Single-Target Implicit Association Test on the implicit level and by self-report on the explicit level. Implicit-explicit interaction (IEI) scores (i.e., implicit-explicit concordance and discrepancy) were derived from principal component analysis. Fuzzy k-means cluster analysis was used to identify patterns of interacting implicit-explicit affective associations. The resulting clusters were assessed for differences in previous running experience, current running behavior, motivational and intentional aspects. Four meaningful overlapping clusters were found and labeled according to their prevalent IEI patterns (i.e., "positive non-discrepant", "positive discrepant", "negative discrepant", "negative non-discrepant"). Significant differences between clusters were found for past running experience, current running behavior, motivational and intentional aspects. The results indicate that running behavior varies between and within patterns of affective associations. In line with previous findings, positive non-discrepant implicit and explicit affective associations are linked to more consistent running behavior, while negative non-discrepant affect is associated with non-runners. However, the occurrence of discrepant implicit-explicit affective associations in young women differing in running behavior, motivation, and intention broadens the view of the complex relationship between affective processes and exercise behavior. In conclusion, individualized interventions that take into account the implicit-explicit interaction of affective associations besides well-known cognitive self-regulatory resources may prove more effective for individuals who struggle to run regularly.

To run or not to run? Differences in implicit attitudes towards running: An EEG study

OBJECTIVE

To understand the reasons for individuals do or do not exercise, we examined differences in implicit (affective and instrumental) attitudes between runners and non-runners.

METHODS

In conjunction with electroencephalography (EEG) technology, 31 participants completed the affective and instrumental implicit associations test (IAT).

RESULTS

Behavioural results showed that runners had more positive implicit (affective and instrumental) attitudes than non-runners. EEG results further explained the underlying mechanisms for the differences, namely that runners had higher cortical functional connectivity in the compatible condition than in the incompatible condition, while non-runners had the opposite results.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher levels of neural processing efficiency were required for runners to perceive affective expectations towards running. Furthermore, ERP indicators (N1 amplitudes of incompatible tasks) can be used as valid criteria for potentially predicting exercise. This contributed to understanding why individuals do or do not exercise. Further research should focus on the effects of implicit attitudes towards exercise.

Can acute exercise be more pleasant? Using audiovisual stimuli: A meta-analysis

This meta-analytic study aimed to examine the effects of audiovisual stimuli on affective responses during and after exercise and their moderators. A total of 296 effect sizes (Hedge's g) were extracted from 46 independent studies covering 1292 participants. Meta-analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3.3, and potential moderating variables were analysed using univariate meta-regression models. Audiovisual stimuli increased affective valence during (g = 0.793, 95% CI [0.666, 0.920]) and after exercise (g = 0.792, 95% CI [0.567, 1.016]), and arousal during (g = 0.920, 95% CI [0.742 1.097]) and after exercise (g = 0.666, 95% CI [0.390, 0.962]). There may be publication bias in the meta-analysis, but the main findings are still valid. The type of audiovisual stimuli (audio-video > audio or video), exercise habits (active > not reported), and exercise intensities (self-selected > imposed) moderated the effects. In conclusion, the application of audiovisual stimuli during exercise can elicit positive affective responses. These results provide a viable intervention strategy for exercise and health practitioners to reduce the number of physically inactive individuals and improve exercise compliance and adherence.

"I Do What I Like": 8- to 10-Year-Old Children's Physical Activity Behavior Is Already Interrelated With Their Automatic Affective Processes

The majority of middle-age children do not meet current physical activity guidelines. There is growing evidence that adults' physical activity is partially influenced by automatic affective processes, which are derived from affective experiences with physical activity. However, little is known about whether these processes are interrelated with children's physical activity level. A prospective design was used to examine whether automatic affective processes assessed by an evaluative priming procedure predict physical activity of children. Physical activity of 48 children (8.71 ± 0.71 years; 65% girls) was measured for 1 week with activity trackers. In a linear regression model, automatic affective processes (β = 0.36) significantly predicted physical activity, accounting for 11.02% of variance. These results indicate that physical-activity-related automatic affective processes are associated with children's physical activity, as has previously been found in adults. This study emphasizes the importance of fostering positive affective experiences associated with physical activity during childhood.

“Some hate it, others love it”: Formation of automatic and reflective affective processes toward exercising in fitness centers and mountain biking

Based on a dual process approach, this study was conducted to test whether automatic affective processes toward exercise are not only interrelated with the amount of exercise but also distinctive for different types of exercise. In a quasi-experimental setting, N = 60 participants (30.87 years ± 7.53; 33% female) completed an Evaluative Priming task to assess automatic affective processes toward exercising in fitness centers, mountain biking and exercise in general and completed a questionnaire about their exercise behavior and their reflective affective processes toward each type of exercise. The results showed that the automatic affective processes toward exercising in fitness centers differed significantly among the three groups (d = 0.74). Those who regularly exercise in fitness centers (n = 21) provided the most positive automatic affective processes, followed by mountain bikers (n = 16) and those engaging in little or no exercise (n = 23). Automatic affective processes toward mountain biking were nonsignificant between groups (p = 0.30; d = 0.42). All reflective affective processes assessed via questionnaire resulted in significant differences between the three groups, always in favor of those who often perform the respective exercise. Our results show that automatic affective processes toward exercising in fitness centers are distinctive for the preference for this type of exercise. Furthermore, they underline the importance of choosing an adequate measurement technique to assess automatic affective processes toward exercise, especially if these processes should be indicative for the preference of different types of exercise.