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Yap ESP, Uthairatanakij A, Laohakunjit N, Jitareerat P, Vaswani A, Magana AA, Morre J, Maier CS. Plant growth and metabolic changes in 'Super Hot' chili fruit (Capsicum annuum) exposed to supplemental LED lights. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 305:110826. [PMID: 33691960 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2021.110826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) of different colors improve plant growth and increase levels of secondary metabolites. This study aimed to determine the effect of red, blue, and red + blue LEDs (1:1) on the secondary metabolites composition in chili, focusing on capsaicinoids, at the top and middle of the plant canopy in 'Super Hot' chili. The accumulated yield of the chili fruit was the highest for control, followed by blue, red and red + blue LEDs, with the top canopy giving twice more yield than the middle canopy. UPLC-MS/MS analysis of chili fruit's methanolic extracts was used to determine capsaicinoids levels. Blue LEDs significantly increased nordihydrocapsaicin, capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin and homodihydrocapsaicin contents by 57 %, 43 %, 56 %, 28 %, and 54 %, respectively, compared to the control. Also, 24 tentatively annotated metabolites, including phenylalanine, cinnamate, and valine, which are involved in the biosynthesis of capsaicinoids, were semi-quantitatively evaluated to determine the impact of LED exposure on the biosynthetic pathway of capsaicinoids. Supplemental blue LED placed at the top and between the canopy may boost the levels of capsaicinoids in chili fruit grown in greenhouses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Shiau Ping Yap
- Division of Postharvest Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (Bangkhuntien), 49 Tientalay 25, Thakam, Bangkhuntien, Bangkok 10150, Thailand.
| | - Apiradee Uthairatanakij
- Division of Postharvest Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (Bangkhuntien), 49 Tientalay 25, Thakam, Bangkhuntien, Bangkok 10150, Thailand.
| | - Natta Laohakunjit
- Division of Biochemical Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (Bangkhuntien), 49 Tientalay 25, Thakam, Bangkhuntien, Bangkok 10150, Thailand.
| | - Pongphen Jitareerat
- Division of Postharvest Technology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (Bangkhuntien), 49 Tientalay 25, Thakam, Bangkhuntien, Bangkok 10150, Thailand.
| | - Ashish Vaswani
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, 153 Gilbert Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
| | - Armando Alcazar Magana
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, 153 Gilbert Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
| | - Jeffrey Morre
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, 153 Gilbert Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
| | - Claudia S Maier
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, 153 Gilbert Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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Ma B, Wang Q, Han BN, Ikeda H, Zhang C, Xu LH. Hydroxylation, Epoxidation, and Dehydrogenation of Capsaicin by a Microbial Promiscuous Cytochrome P450 105D7. Chem Biodivers 2021; 18:e2000910. [PMID: 33656282 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202000910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s) are versatile biocatalysts, which insert a molecular oxygen into inactivated C-H bonds under mild conditions. CYP105D7 from Streptomyces avermitilis has been reported as a bacterial substrate-promiscuous P450 which catalyzes the hydroxylation of 1-deoxypentalenic acid, diclofenac, naringenin, compactin and steroids. In this study, CYP105D7 catalyzes hydroxylation, epoxidation and dehydrogenation of capsaicin, a pharmaceutical agent, revealing its functional diversity. The kinetic parameters of the CYP105D7 oxidation of capsaicin were determined as Km =311.60±87.30 μM and kcat =2.01±0.33 min-1 . In addition, we conducted molecular docking, mutagenesis and substrate binding analysis, indicating that Arg81 plays crucial role in the capsaicin binding and catalysis. To our best knowledge, this study presents the first report to illustrate that capsaicin can be catalyzed by prokaryotic P450s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingbing Ma
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Dinghai, Zhoushan, 316021, P. R. China
| | - Qianwen Wang
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Dinghai, Zhoushan, 316021, P. R. China
| | - Bing-Nan Han
- College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, P. R. China
| | - Haruo Ikeda
- Omura Satoshi Memorial Institute, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
| | - Chunfang Zhang
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Dinghai, Zhoushan, 316021, P. R. China
| | - Lian-Hua Xu
- College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, P. R. China
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Shimoda K, Ono T, Hamada H. Regioselective hydroxylation and dehydrogenation of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin by cultured cells of Phytolacca americana. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2021; 85:103-107. [PMID: 33577646 DOI: 10.1093/bbb/zbaa004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
The biotransformations of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were investigated using cultured plant cells of Phytolacca americana as biocatalysts. Four products, ie 15-hydroxycapsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, 15-hydroxydihydrocapsaicin, and capsaicin 4-β-glucoside, were isolated from the suspension cultures of P. americana treated with capsaicin for 3 days, showing that capsaicin was regioselectively hydroxylated, reduced, and glucosylated by cultured P. americana cells. On the other hand, dihydrocapsaicin was regioselectively dehydrogenated, hydroxylated, reduced, and glucosylated to give four products, ie capsaicin, 15-hydroxycapsaicin, 15-hydroxydihydrocapsaicin, and capsaicin 4-β-glucoside, by cultured P. americana cells. In this paper, it is reported, for the first time, that dihydrocapsaicin is converted into 15-hydroxydihydrocapsaicin by plant cultured cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Shimoda
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Oita, Japan
| | - Tsubasa Ono
- Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science, Kita-ku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Hiroki Hamada
- Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science, Kita-ku, Okayama, Japan
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Metabolic-Hydroxy and Carboxy Functionalization of Alkyl Moieties in Drug Molecules: Prediction of Structure Influence and Pharmacologic Activity. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25081937. [PMID: 32331223 PMCID: PMC7222001 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25081937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkyl moieties—open chain or cyclic, linear, or branched—are common in drug molecules. The hydrophobicity of alkyl moieties in drug molecules is modified by metabolic hydroxy functionalization via free-radical intermediates to give primary, secondary, or tertiary alcohols depending on the class of the substrate carbon. The hydroxymethyl groups resulting from the functionalization of methyl groups are mostly oxidized further to carboxyl groups to give carboxy metabolites. As observed from the surveyed cases in this review, hydroxy functionalization leads to loss, attenuation, or retention of pharmacologic activity with respect to the parent drug. On the other hand, carboxy functionalization leads to a loss of activity with the exception of only a few cases in which activity is retained. The exceptions are those groups in which the carboxy functionalization occurs at a position distant from a well-defined primary pharmacophore. Some hydroxy metabolites, which are equiactive with their parent drugs, have been developed into ester prodrugs while carboxy metabolites, which are equiactive to their parent drugs, have been developed into drugs as per se. In this review, we present and discuss the above state of affairs for a variety of drug classes, using selected drug members to show the effect on pharmacologic activity as well as dependence of the metabolic change on drug molecular structure. The review provides a basis for informed predictions of (i) structural features required for metabolic hydroxy and carboxy functionalization of alkyl moieties in existing or planned small drug molecules, and (ii) pharmacologic activity of the metabolites resulting from hydroxy and/or carboxy functionalization of alkyl moieties.
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Tian K, Zhu J, Li M, Qiu X. Capsaicin is efficiently transformed by multiple cytochrome P450s from Capsicum fruit-feeding Helicoverpa armigera. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 156:145-151. [PMID: 31027574 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is the most abundant capsaicinoids found in hot peppers (Capsicum annum and Capsicum frutescens). It has been well documented that capsaicin plays an important role in the defense against the attack of herbivores or pathogens on Capsicum plants. A few insect herbivores such as Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa assulta have been recorded to be capable of feeding on hot pepper fruits, suggesting that these insects evolve mechanisms against the toxicity of capsaicin. Although cytochrome P450-meidated detoxification is considered to be an important mechanism by which cotton bollworms cope with capsaicin, experimental evidence is lacking. In this study, we compared the capacity of four H. armigera P450s (CYP6B6, CYP9A12, CYP9A14 and CYP9A17) in capsaicin metabolism, and the capsaicin metabolites were screened and tentatively identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). HPLC analyses showed that depletion rates of capsaicin were 21.9 ± 0.1, 11.9 ± 1.5, 16.3 ± 1.4 and 14.8 ± 0.2 min-1 for CYP6B6, CYP9A12, CYP9A14 and CYP9A17 respectively. The transformation of capsaicin was inhibited by the P450 inhibitor piperonyl butoxide. A total of seven products were detected, and hydroxylation (aromatic and aliphatic) and dehydrogenation were found to be two main pathways in capsaicin metabolism. In addition, capsaicin metabolism was enzyme selective: M1 (ω-hydroxylated N-macrocyclic metabolite) and M3 (ω-hydroxylated metabolite) were uniquely detected in the CYP6B6 catalytic reaction, while M4 (ω-n hydroxylated capsaicin), M5 (diene of capsaicin) and M6 (doubly oxidized metabolite of dehydrogenated capsaicin) were only detectable in CYP9A metabolisms. A capsaicin dimer (5, 5'-dicapsaicin) was found to be the major metabolite of CYP9A reactions, but the minor product produced by CYP6B6. An overall more similar behavior in capsaicin metabolism was observed among CYP9As than between CYP6B6 and CYP9As. Our data demonstrate that CYP6B6 and CYP9As have a potent capability to transform capsaicin, and individual P450 produce unique metabolite profile. These findings help us to understand the molecular basis of capsaicin adaptation in H. armigera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Mei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xinghui Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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Shih CL, Liao PM, Hsu JY, Chung YN, Zgoda VG, Liao PC. Exposure marker discovery of di(isononyl)cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate using two mass spectrometry-based metabolite profiling data processing methods. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:11999-12011. [PMID: 29450778 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-1484-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Di(isononyl)cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) is a plasticizer used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products, such as toys and food packaging. Because the use of DINCH is on the rise, the risk of human exposure to this chemical may likewise increase. Discovering markers for assessing human chemical exposure is difficult because the metabolism of chemicals within humans is complex. In this study, two mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolite profiling data processing methods, the mass defect filter (MDF) method and the signal mining algorithm with isotope tracing (SMAIT) method, were used for DINCH metabolite discovery, and 110 and 18 potential DINCH metabolite signal candidates were discovered, respectively, from in vitro DINCH incubation samples. Of these, the 21 signals were validated as tentative exposure marker signals in a rat model. Interestingly, the two methods generated rather different sets of DINCH exposure markers. Five of the 21 tentative exposure marker signals were verified as the probable DINCH structure-related metabolite signals based on their MS/MS product ion profiles. These five signals were detected in at least one human urine sample. Of the five probable DINCH structure-related metabolite signals, two novel signals might be suitable exposure markers that should be further investigated for their application in human DINCH exposure assessments. These observations indicate that the MDF and SMAIT methods may be used to discover a relatively different set of potential DINCH exposure markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Lung Shih
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, 138 Sheng-Li Road, Tainan, 704, Taiwan
| | - Pao-Mei Liao
- Department of Environmental Science and Property Management, Jinwen University of Science and Technology, 99, Anzhong Road, Xindian District, New Taipei City, 23154, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Yi Hsu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, 138 Sheng-Li Road, Tainan, 704, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ning Chung
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, 138 Sheng-Li Road, Tainan, 704, Taiwan
| | - Victor G Zgoda
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, 119121, Moscow, Russia
| | - Pao-Chi Liao
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, 138 Sheng-Li Road, Tainan, 704, Taiwan.
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Richards JR, Lapoint JM, Burillo-Putze G. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: potential mechanisms for the benefit of capsaicin and hot water hydrotherapy in treatment. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2017; 56:15-24. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2017.1349910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John R. Richards
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Jeff M. Lapoint
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Southern California Permanente Medical Group, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Guillermo Burillo-Putze
- Área de Toxicología Clínica, Servicio de Urgencias, Universidad Europea de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain
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Abstract
Abstract
Cytochrome P450s belong to a superfamily of enzymes that catalyse a wide variety of oxidative transformations. Hydroxylation is one the most thoroughly investigated of all identified P450-catalysed reactions whilst dehydrogenation has been relatively much less explored to date. P450-catalysed dehydrogenation is often found to occur with hydroxylation and thus, it was initially suspected to be a stepwise process consisting of hydroxylation and subsequent dehydration to yield the final olefin product. This theory has been proven to be invalid and the olefin was shown to be the direct product of a P450-catalysed reaction. This interesting reaction plays a vital role in the metabolism of xenobiotics and the biosynthesis of endogenous compounds, including a number of steroids. A number of well-known examples of P450 mediated dehydrogenation, including those in the metabolism of valproic acid, capsaicin and 3-methylindole and those in the biosynthesis of plant and fungal sterols are discussed in this review.
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Lewinska A, Chochrek P, Smolag K, Rawska E, Wnuk M. Oxidant-based anticancer activity of a novel synthetic analogue of capsaicin, capsaicin epoxide. Redox Rep 2014; 20:116-25. [PMID: 25382686 DOI: 10.1179/1351000214y.0000000113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Plant-derived natural substances, such as capsaicin, with potent antiproliferative activity against cancer cells in vitro are considered to be promising nutraceuticals in anticancer therapy. Nevertheless, the limited systemic bioavailability of phytochemicals may raise questions regarding the physiological relevance of their phytochemical effects in vivo. Thus, the search for novel phytochemical-based substances with more efficient anticancer action is needed. METHODS In the present study, a capsaicin analogue, namely, capsaicin epoxide, was synthesized, and its cytotoxic potential against cancer cells was evaluated and compared to that of capsaicin through 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and multi-caspase assays. The abilities of capsaicin and capsaicin epoxide to induce oxidative stress were estimated using redox-sensitive fluorogenic probes: 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCF-DA) and dihydroethidium. RESULTS The structure and purity of the synthesized product were confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and gas chromatography. Normal human dermal fibroblasts were not susceptible to treatment with the agent, whereas a cancer cell type-specific response was observed. Human breast carcinoma cells were found to be the most sensitive to capsaicin epoxide treatment compared with capsaicin treatment, and the action of capsaicin epoxide was oxidant based. DISCUSSION Our data indicate that the antiproliferative activity of capsaicin epoxide is potentiated in vitro, when used at much lower concentrations compared with capsaicin at similar concentrations. Thus, the findings of this study may have implications for phytochemical-based anticancer drug development.
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Nicolas JM, Chanteux H, Mancel V, Dubin GM, Gerin B, Staelens L, Depelchin O, Kervyn S. N-alkylprotoporphyrin formation and hepatic porphyria in dogs after administration of a new antiepileptic drug candidate: mechanism and species specificity. Toxicol Sci 2014; 141:353-64. [PMID: 24973095 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A new antiepileptic synaptic vesicle 2a (SV2a) ligand drug candidate was tested in 4-week oral toxicity studies in rat and dog. Brown pigment inclusions were found in the liver of high-dose dogs. The morphology of the deposits and the accompanying liver changes (increased plasma liver enzymes, increased total hepatic porphyrin level, decreased liver ferrochelatase activity, combined induction, and inactivation of cytochrome P-450 CYP2B11) suggested disruption of the heme biosynthetic cascade. None of these changes was seen in rat although this species was exposed to higher parent drug levels. Toxicokinetic analysis and in vitro metabolism assays in hepatocytes showed that dog is more prone to oxidize the drug candidate than rat. Mass spectrometry analysis of liver samples from treated dogs revealed an N-alkylprotoporphyrin adduct. The elucidation of its chemical structure suggested that the drug transforms into a reactive metabolite which is structurally related to a known reference porphyrogenic agent allylisopropylacetamide. That particular metabolite, primarily produced in dog but neither in rat nor in human, has the potential to alkylate the prosthetic heme of CYP. Overall, the data suggested that the drug candidate should not be porphyrogenic in human. This case study further exemplifies the species variability in the susceptibility to drug-induced porphyria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marie Nicolas
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Hugues Chanteux
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Valérie Mancel
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | | | - Brigitte Gerin
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Ludovicus Staelens
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Olympe Depelchin
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Sophie Kervyn
- UCB Pharma S.A., Non-Clinical Development, B-1420 Braine l'Alleud, Belgium
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Chooi YH, Hong YJ, Cacho RA, Tantillo DJ, Tang Y. A cytochrome P450 serves as an unexpected terpene cyclase during fungal meroterpenoid biosynthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:16805-8. [PMID: 24161266 DOI: 10.1021/ja408966t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Viridicatumtoxin (1) is a tetracycline-like fungal meroterpenoid with a unique, fused spirobicyclic ring system. Puzzlingly, no dedicated terpene cyclase is found in the gene cluster identified in Penicillium aethiopicum. Cytochrome P450 enzymes VrtE and VrtK in the vrt gene cluster were shown to catalyze C5-hydroxylation and spirobicyclic ring formation, respectively. Feeding acyclic previridicatumtoxin to Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing VrtK confirmed that VrtK is the sole enzyme required for cyclizing the geranyl moiety. Thus, VrtK is the first example of a P450 that can catalyze terpene cyclization, most likely via initial oxidation of C17 to an allylic carbocation. Quantum chemical modeling revealed a possible new tertiary carbocation intermediate E that forms after allylic carbocation formation. Intermediate E can readily undergo concerted 1,2-alkyl shift/1,3-hydride shift, either spontaneously or further aided by VrtK, followed by C7 Friedel-Crafts alkylation to afford 1. The most likely stereochemical course of the reaction was proposed on the basis of the results of our computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yit-Heng Chooi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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Adams MJ, Almaghrabi SY, Ahuja KDK, Geraghty DP. Vanilloid-Like Agents: Potential Therapeutic Targeting of Platelets? Drug Dev Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Murray J. Adams
- School of Human Life Sciences; University of Tasmania; Bag 1320 Launceston; Tasmania; 7250; Australia
| | - Safa Y. Almaghrabi
- School of Human Life Sciences; University of Tasmania; Bag 1320 Launceston; Tasmania; 7250; Australia
| | - Kiran D. K. Ahuja
- School of Human Life Sciences; University of Tasmania; Bag 1320 Launceston; Tasmania; 7250; Australia
| | - Dominic P. Geraghty
- School of Human Life Sciences; University of Tasmania; Bag 1320 Launceston; Tasmania; 7250; Australia
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Bell SG, Zhou R, Yang W, Tan ABH, Gentleman AS, Wong LL, Zhou W. Investigation of the Substrate Range of CYP199A4: Modification of the Partition between Hydroxylation and Desaturation Activities by Substrate and Protein Engineering. Chemistry 2012; 18:16677-88. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201202776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Reilly CA, Henion F, Bugni TS, Ethirajan M, Stockmann C, Pramanik KC, Srivastava SK, Yost GS. Reactive intermediates produced from the metabolism of the vanilloid ring of capsaicinoids by p450 enzymes. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 26:55-66. [PMID: 23088752 DOI: 10.1021/tx300366k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This study characterized electrophilic and radical products derived from the metabolism of capsaicin by cytochrome P450 and peroxidase enzymes. Multiple glutathione and β-mercaptoethanol conjugates (a.k.a., adducts), derived from the trapping of quinone methide and quinone intermediates of capsaicin, its analogue nonivamide, and O-demethylated and aromatic hydroxylated metabolites thereof, were produced by human liver microsomes and individual recombinant human P450 enzymes. Conjugates derived from concomitant dehydrogenation of the alkyl terminus of capsaicin were also characterized. Modifications to the 4-OH substituent of the vanilloid ring of capsaicinoids largely prevented the formation of electrophilic intermediates, consistent with the proposed structures and mechanisms of formation for the various conjugates. 5,5'-Dicapsaicin, presumably arising from the bimolecular coupling of free radical intermediates was also characterized. Finally, the analysis of hepatic glutathione conjugates and urinary N-acetylcysteine conjugates from mice dosed with capsaicin confirmed the formation of glutathione conjugates of O-demethylated quinone methide and 5-OH-capsaicin in vivo. These data demonstrated that capsaicin and structurally similar analogues are converted to reactive intermediates by certain P450 enzymes, which may partially explain conflicting reports related to the cytotoxic, pro-carcinogenic, and chemoprotective effects of capsaicinoids in different cells and/or organ systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Reilly
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah , 30 S. 2000 E., Room 201 Skaggs Hall, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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Cryle MJ, Hayes PY, De Voss JJ. Enzyme-Substrate Complementarity Governs Access to a Cationic Reaction Manifold in the P450BM3-Catalysed Oxidation of Cyclopropyl Fatty Acids. Chemistry 2012; 18:15994-9. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201203035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Abstract
P450(BM3) (CYP102A1), a fatty acid hydroxylase from Bacillus megaterium, has been extensively studied over a period of almost forty years. The enzyme has been redesigned to catalyse the oxidation of non-natural substrates as diverse as pharmaceuticals, terpenes and gaseous alkanes using a variety of engineering strategies. Crystal structures have provided a basis for several of the catalytic effects brought about by mutagenesis, while changes to reduction potentials, inter-domain electron transfer rates and catalytic parameters have yielded functional insights. Areas of active research interest include drug metabolite production, the development of process-scale techniques, unravelling general mechanistic aspects of P450 chemistry, methane oxidation, and improving selectivity control to allow the synthesis of fine chemicals. This review draws together the disparate research themes and places them in a historical context with the aim of creating a resource that can be used as a gateway to the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J C Whitehouse
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, UK
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Chen XW, Serag ES, Sneed KB, Zhou SF. Herbal bioactivation, molecular targets and the toxicity relevance. Chem Biol Interact 2011; 192:161-76. [PMID: 21459083 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2011.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Revised: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
There have been increasing reports on the adverse reactions associated with herbal consumption. For many of these adverse reactions, the underlying biochemical mechanisms are unknown, but bioactivation of herbal compounds to generate reactive intermediates have been implicated. This minireview updates our knowledge on metabolic activation of herbal compounds, molecular targets and the toxicity relevance. A number of studies have documented that some herbal compounds can be converted to toxic or even carcinogenic metabolites by Phase I [e.g. cytochrome P450s (CYPs)] and less frequently by Phase II enzymes. For example, aristolochic acids (AAs) in Aristolochia spp, which undergo reduction of the nitro group by hepatic CYP1A1/2 or peroxidases in extrahepatic tissues to generate highly reactive cyclic nitrenium ions. The latter can react with macromolecules (DNA and protein), resulting in activation of H-ras and myc oncogenes and gene mutation in renal cells and finally carcinogenesis of the kidneys. Teucrin A and teuchamaedryn A, two diterpenoids found in germander (Teuchrium chamaedrys) used as an adjuvant to slimming herbal supplements that caused severe hepatotoxicity, are converted by CYP3A4 to reactive epoxide which reacts with proteins such as CYP3A and epoxide hydrolase and inactivate them. Some naturally occurring alkenylbenzenes (e.g. safrole, methyleugenol and estragole) and flavonoids (e.g. quercetin) can undergo bioactivation by sequential 1-hydroxylation and sulfation, resulting in reactive intermediates capable of forming DNA adducts. Extensive pulegone metabolism generated p-cresol that is a glutathione depletory. The hepatotoxicity of kava is possibly due to intracellular glutathione depletion and/or quinone formation. Moreover, several herbal compounds including capsaicin from chili peppers, dially sulfone in garlic, methysticin and dihydromethysticin in kava, oleuropein in olive oil, and resveratrol found in grape seeds are mechanism-based (suicide) inhibitors of various CYPs. Together with advances of proteomics, metabolomics and toxicogenomics, an integrated systems toxicological approach may provide deep insights into mechanistic aspects of herb-induced toxicities, and contribute to bridging the relationships between herbal bioactivation, protein/DNA adduct formation and the toxicological consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Wu Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First People's Hospital of Shunde affiliated to Southern Medical University, Shunde, Foshan, Guangdong, China
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Toyoda-Hokaiwado N, Yasui Y, Takamune M, Yamada M, Muramatsu M, Masumura K, Ohta T, Tanaka T, Nohmi T. Modulatory Effects of Capsaicin on N-diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced Mutagenesis in Salmonella typhimurium YG7108 and DEN-induced Hepatocarcinogenesis in gpt Delta Transgenic Rats. Genes Environ 2011. [DOI: 10.3123/jemsge.33.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Báez S, Tsuchiya Y, Calvo A, Pruyas M, Nakamura K, Kiyohara C, Oyama M, Yamamoto M. Genetic variants involved in gallstone formation and capsaicin metabolism, and the risk of gallbladder cancer in Chilean women. World J Gastroenterol 2010; 16:372-8. [PMID: 20082485 PMCID: PMC2807960 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v16.i3.372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To determine the effects of genetic variants associated with gallstone formation and capsaicin (a pungent component of chili pepper) metabolism on the risk of gallbladder cancer (GBC).
METHODS: A total of 57 patients with GBC, 119 patients with gallstones, and 70 controls were enrolled in this study. DNA was extracted from their blood or paraffin block sample using standard commercial kits. The statuses of the genetic variants were assayed using Taqman® SNP Genotyping Assays or Custom Taqman® SNP Genotyping Assays.
RESULTS: The non-ancestral T/T genotype of apolipoprotein B rs693 polymorphism was associated with a decreased risk of GBC (OR: 0.14, 95% CI: 0.03-0.63). The T/T genotype of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) rs708272 polymorphism was associated with an increased risk of GBC (OR: 5.04, 95% CI: 1.43-17.8).
CONCLUSION: Genetic variants involved in gallstone formation such as the apolipoprotein B rs693 and CETP rs708272 polymorphisms may be related to the risk of developing GBC in Chilean women.
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Whitehouse C, Bell S, Wong LL. Desaturation of Alkylbenzenes by Cytochrome P450BM3(CYP102A1). Chemistry 2008; 14:10905-8. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.200801927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Bell SG, Xu F, Forward I, Bartlam M, Rao Z, Wong LL. Crystal structure of CYP199A2, a para-substituted benzoic acid oxidizing cytochrome P450 from Rhodopseudomonas palustris. J Mol Biol 2008; 383:561-74. [PMID: 18762195 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 08/13/2008] [Accepted: 08/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
CYP199A2, a cytochrome P450 enzyme from Rhodopseudomonas palustris, oxidatively demethylates 4-methoxybenzoic acid to 4-hydroxybenzoic acid. 4-Ethylbenzoic acid is converted to a mixture of predominantly 4-(1-hydroxyethyl)-benzoic acid and 4-vinylbenzoic acid, the latter being a rare example of CC bond dehydrogenation of an unbranched alkyl group. The crystal structure of CYP199A2 has been determined at 2.0-A resolution. The enzyme has the common P450 fold, but the B' helix is missing and the G helix is broken into two (G and G') by a kink at Pro204. Helices G and G' are bent back from the extended BC loop and the I helix to open up a clearly defined substrate access channel. Channel openings in this region of the P450 fold are rare in bacterial P450 enzymes but more common in eukaryotic P450 enzymes. The channel is hydrophobic except for the basic residue Arg246 at the entrance, which probably plays a role in the specificity of this enzyme for charged benzoates over neutral phenols and benzenes. The substrate binding pocket is hydrophobic, with Ser97 and Ser247 being the only polar residues. Computer docking of 4-ethylbenzoic acid into the active site suggests that the substrate carboxylate oxygens interact with Ser97 and Ser247, and the beta-methyl group is located over the heme iron by Phe185, the side chain of which is only 6.35 A above the iron in the native structure. This binding orientation is consistent with the observed product profile of exclusive attack at the para substituent. Putidaredoxin of the CYP101A1 system from Pseudomonas putida supports substrate oxidation by CYP199A2 at approximately 6% of the activity of the physiological ferredoxin. Comparison of the heme proximal faces of CYP199A2 and CYP101A1 suggests that charge reversal surrounding the surface residue Leu369 in CYP199A2 may be a significant factor in this low cross-activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen G Bell
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Sun H, Ehlhardt WJ, Kulanthaivel P, Lanza DL, Reilly CA, Yost GS. Dehydrogenation of indoline by cytochrome P450 enzymes: a novel "aromatase" process. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 322:843-51. [PMID: 17502430 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.107.121723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Indoline derivatives possess therapeutic potential within a variety of drug candidates. In this study, we found that indoline is aromatized by cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes to produce indole through a novel dehydrogenation pathway. The indole products can potentially be bioactivated to toxic intermediates through an additional dehydrogenation step. For example, 3-substituted indoles like 3-methylindole and zafirlukast [4-(5-cyclopentyloxy-carbonylamino-1-methyl-indol-3-ylmethyl)-3-methoxy-N-o-tolylsulfonylbenzamide] are dehydrogenated to form 3-methyleneindolenine electrophiles, which react with protein and/or DNA nucleophilic residues to cause toxicities. Another potentially significant therapeutic consequence of indoline aromatization is that the product indoles might have dramatically different therapeutic potency than the parent indolines. In this study, indoline was indeed efficiently aromatized by human liver microsomes and by several P450s, but not by flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) 3. CYP3A4 had the highest aromatase activity. Four additional indoline metabolites [2,3,4,7-tetrahydro-4,5-epoxy-1H-indole (M1); N-hydroxyindole (M2), N-hydroxyindoline (M3), and M4 ([1,4,2,5]dioxadiazino[2,3-a:5,6-a']diindole)] were characterized; none was a metabolite of indole. M1 was an arene oxide from P450 oxidation, and M2, M3, and M4 were produced by FMO3. Our data indicated that indoline was oxidized to M3 and then to an intermediate indoline nitrone, which tautomerized to form M2, and subsequently dimerized to a di-indoline. This dimer was immediately oxidized by FMO3 or atmospheric oxygen to the final product, M4. No evidence was found for the P450-mediated production of an aliphatic alcohol from indoline that might dehydrate to produce indole. Therefore, P450 enzymes catalyze the novel "aromatase" metabolism of indoline to produce indole. The aromatase mechanism does not seem to occur through N-oxidation or dehydration of an alcohol but rather through a formal dehydrogenation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Sun
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-5820, USA
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Reilly CA, Yost GS. Metabolism of capsaicinoids by P450 enzymes: a review of recent findings on reaction mechanisms, bio-activation, and detoxification processes. Drug Metab Rev 2007; 38:685-706. [PMID: 17145696 PMCID: PMC2390586 DOI: 10.1080/03602530600959557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Capsaicinoids are botanical irritants present in chili peppers. Chili pepper extracts and capsaicinoids are common dietary constituents and important pharmaceutical agents. Use of these substances in modern consumer products and medicinal preparations occurs worldwide. Capsaicinoids are the principals of pepper spray self-defense weapons and several over-the-counter pain treatments as well as the active component of many dietary supplements. Capsaicinoids interact with the capsaicin receptor (a.k.a., VR1 or TRPV1) to produce acute pain and cough as well as long-term analgesia. Capsaicinoids are also toxic to many cells via TRPV1-dependent and independent mechanisms. Chemical modifications to capsaicinoids by P450 enzymes decreases their potency at TRPV1 and reduces the pharmacological and toxicological phenomena associated with TRPV1 stimulation. Metabolism of capsaicinoids by P450 enzymes also produces reactive electrophiles capable of modifying biological macromolecules. This review highlights data describing specific mechanisms by which P450 enzymes convert the capsaicinoids to novel products and explores the relationship between capsaicinoid metabolism and its effects on capsaicinoid pharmacology and toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Reilly
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA.
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