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Jurva U, Weidolf L, Sandinge AS, Leandersson C, Ekdahl A, Li XQ, Antonsson T, Sundell J, Westerlund K, Amilon C, Inghardt T, Gopaul VS. Biotransformation of the Novel Myeloperoxidase Inhibitor AZD4831 in Preclinical Species and Humans. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:464-479. [PMID: 36653117 PMCID: PMC11022936 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.001099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
We report herein an in-depth analysis of the metabolism of the novel myeloperoxidase inhibitor AZD4831 ((R)-1-(2-(1-aminoethyl)-4-chlorobenzyl)-2-thioxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[3,2-d]pyrimidin-4(5H)-one) in animals and human. Quantitative and qualitative metabolite profiling were performed on samples collected from mass balance studies in rats and humans. Exposure of circulating human metabolites with comparable levels in animal species used in safety assessment were also included. Structural characterization of 20 metabolites was performed by liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry, and quantification was performed by either 14C analysis using solid phase scintillation counting or accelerator mass spectrometry and, where available, authentication with synthesized metabolite standards. A complete mass balance study in rats is presented, while data from dogs and human are limited to metabolite profiling and characterization. The metabolism of AZD4831 is mainly comprised of reactions at the primary amine nitrogen and the thiourea sulfur, resulting in several conjugated metabolites with or without desulfurization. A carbamoyl glucuronide metabolite of AZD4831 (M7) was the most abundant plasma metabolite in both human healthy volunteers and heart failure patients after single and repeated dose administration of AZD4831, accounting for 75%-80% of the total drug-related exposure. Exposures to M7 and other human circulating metabolites were covered in rats and/or dogs, the two models most frequently used in the toxicology studies, and were also highly abundant in the mouse, the second model other than rat used in carcinogenicity studies. The carbamoyl glucuronide M7 was the main metabolite in rat bile, while a desulfurized and cyclized metabolite (M5) was abundant in rat plasma and excreta. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The biotransformation of AZD4831, a novel myeloperoxidase inhibitor inhibiting xanthine derivative bearing thiourea and primary aliphatic amine functions, is described. Twenty characterized metabolites demonstrate the involvement of carbamoylation with glucuronidation, desulfurization, and cyclization as main biotransformation reactions. The carbamoyl glucuronide was the main metabolite in human plasma, likely governed by a significant species difference in plasma protein binding for this metabolite, but this and other human plasma metabolites were covered in animals used in the toxicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrik Jurva
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Lars Weidolf
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Ann-Sofie Sandinge
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Carina Leandersson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Anja Ekdahl
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Xue-Qing Li
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Thomas Antonsson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Johan Sundell
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Kristina Westerlund
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Carl Amilon
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - Tord Inghardt
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
| | - V Sashi Gopaul
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (U.J., L.W., A-S.S., A.E., X.L., V.S.G.); Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (C.L.), Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development, Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism (T.A., J.S., K.W., T.I.), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden; and Formerly of AstraZeneca (L.W., C.A.)
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Ding N, Yamamoto S, Chisaki I, Nakayama M, Matsumoto SI, Hirabayashi H. Utility of Göttingen minipigs for the prediction of human pharmacokinetic profiles after intravenous drug administration. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2021; 41:100408. [PMID: 34710650 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2021.100408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Göttingen minipigs are increasingly used to evaluate the pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles of drug candidates. However, their accuracy in predicting human PK parameters is unclear. In this study, we investigated the utility of Göttingen minipigs for predicting human PK profiles. We evaluated the PK parameters of 30 compounds with diverse metabolic pathways after intravenous administration in minipigs. Human total clearance (CLtotal) was corrected using the blood to plasma ratio, and the volume of distribution at steady state (Vd(ss)) was corrected with plasma unbound fraction (fup). CLtotal and Vd(ss) were predicted using single-species allometric scaling using data from minipigs and other reported animal models (monkeys, human liver chimeric mice, and rats). The predicted values were compared with actual values reported in humans. Göttingen minipig were superior to rats because of their better predictability of Vd(ss) and CLtotal, as represented by lower absolute average fold error values. However, their predictability for Vd(ss) was inferior to monkey and human liver chimeric mice. Prediction of CLtotal from blood-based minipig data showed excellent correlation with human data, and comparable predictability with monkey and human liver chimeric mice. Thus, Göttingen minipigs can be used as an optional model for preclinical pharmaceutical research for predicting human CLtotal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Ding
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Syunsuke Yamamoto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Ikumi Chisaki
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Miyu Nakayama
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Matsumoto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hideki Hirabayashi
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
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3
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Martinho R, Correia G, Seixas R, Oliveira A, Silva S, Serrão P, Fernandes-Lopes C, Costa C, Moreira-Rodrigues M. Treatment With Nepicastat Decreases Contextual Traumatic Memories Persistence in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:745219. [PMID: 34630037 PMCID: PMC8498196 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.745219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common anxiety mental disorder and can be manifested after exposure to a real or perceived life-threatening event. Increased noradrenaline and adrenaline in plasma and urine have been documented in PTSD. Dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH) catalyzes the conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline and consequently, DBH inhibition reduces catecholamines. Our aim was to evaluate if nepicastat treatment decreases PTSD signs in an animal model. Wild-type (129x1/SvJ) female mice were submitted to PTSD induction protocol. DBH-inhibitor nepicastat (30 mg/kg) or vehicle (0.2% HPMC) were administered once daily since day 0 until day 7 or 12. The percentage of freezing was calculated on days 0, 1, 2, and 7, and behavioral tests were performed. Quantification of nepicastat in plasma and DBH activity in the adrenal gland was evaluated. Catecholamines were quantified by HPLC with electrochemical detection. mRNA expression of Npas4 and Bdnf in hippocampus was evaluated by qPCR.Mice in the PTSD-group and treated with nepicastat showed a decrease in freezing, and an increase in the time spent and entries in open arms in elevated plus maze test. In mice treated with nepicastat, adrenal gland DBH activity was decreased, and catecholamines were also decreased in plasma and tissues. On day 7, in mice treated with nepicastat, there was an increase of Npas4 and Bdnf mRNA expression in the hippocampus.In conclusion, DBH inhibitor nepicastat has an effect consistent with a decrease in the persistence of traumatic memories and anxiety-like behavior in this PTSD mice model. The disruption of traumatic memories through interference with the formation, consolidation, retrieval, and/or expression processes may be important to decrease PTSD symptoms and signs. The increase in Npas4 and Bdnf mRNA expression in the hippocampus may be important to develop a weaker traumatic contextual memory after nepicastat treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Martinho
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto (ICBAS/UP), Porto, Portugal.,Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Gabriela Correia
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto (ICBAS/UP), Porto, Portugal.,Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Rafaela Seixas
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto (ICBAS/UP), Porto, Portugal.,Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Oliveira
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto (ICBAS/UP), Porto, Portugal.,Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Soraia Silva
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto (ICBAS/UP), Porto, Portugal.,Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Serrão
- Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal.,Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto (FMUP), Porto, Portugal
| | | | | | - Mónica Moreira-Rodrigues
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto (ICBAS/UP), Porto, Portugal.,Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto (MedInUP), Porto, Portugal
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Dumouchel JL, Kramlinger VM. Case Study 10: A Case to Investigate Acetyl Transferase Kinetics. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2342:781-808. [PMID: 34272717 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1554-6_29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Major routes of metabolism for marketed drugs are predominately driven by enzyme families such as cytochromes P450 and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Less studied conjugative enzymes, like N-acetyltransferases (NATs), are commonly associated with detoxification pathways. However, in the clinic, the high occurrence of NAT polymorphism that leads to slow and fast acetylator phenotypes in patient populations has been linked to toxicity for a multitude of drugs. A key example of this is the observed clinical toxicity in patients who exhibit the slow acetylator phenotype and were treated with isoniazid. Toxicity in patients has led to detailed characterization of the two NAT isoforms and their polymorphic genotypes. Investigation in recombinant enzymes, genotyped hepatocytes, and in vivo transgenic models coupled with acetylator status-driven clinical studies have helped understand the role of NATs in drug development, clinical study design and outcomes, and potential roles in human disease models. The selected case studies herein document NAT enzyme kinetics to explore substrate overlap from two human isoforms, preclinical species considerations, and clinical genotype population concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Dumouchel
- Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology Graduate Training Program, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
| | - Valerie M Kramlinger
- Translational Medicine, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
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Kamel A, Bowlin S, Hosea N, Arkilo D, Laurenza A. In Vitro Metabolism of Slowly Cleared G Protein-Coupled Receptor 139 Agonist TAK-041 Using Rat, Dog, Monkey, and Human Hepatocyte Models (HepatoPac): Correlation with In Vivo Metabolism. Drug Metab Dispos 2020; 49:121-132. [PMID: 33273044 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.000246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic metabolism of low-clearance compound TAK-041 was studied in two different in vitro model systems using rat, dog, monkey, and human suspended cryopreserved hepatocytes and HepatoPac micropatterned coculture model primary hepatocytes. The aim of this work was to investigate the most appropriate system to assess the biotransformation of TAK-041, determine any notable species difference in the rate and in the extent of its metabolic pathways, and establish correlation with in vivo metabolism. TAK-041 exhibited very low turnover in suspended cryopreserved hepatocyte suspensions for all species, with no metabolites observed in human hepatocytes. However, incubations conducted for up to 14 days in the HepatoPac model resulted in more robust metabolic turnover. The major biotransformation pathways of TAK-041 proceed via hydroxylation on the benzene ring fused to the oxotriazine moiety and subsequent sulfate, glucuronide, and glutathione conjugation reactions. The glutathione conjugate of TAK-041 undergoes further downstream metabolism to produce the cysteine S-conjugate, which then undergoes N-acetylation to mercapturic acid and/or conversion to β-lyase-derived thiol metabolites. The minor biotransformation pathways include novel ring closure and hydrolysis, hydroxylation, oxidative N-dealkylation, and subsequent reduction. The HepatoPac model shows a notable species difference in the rate and in the extent of metabolic pathways of TAK-041, with dogs having the fastest metabolic clearance and humans the slowest. Furthermore, the model shows its suitability for establishing correlation with in vivo metabolism of low-turnover and extensively metabolized compounds such as TAK-041, displaying an extensive and unusual downstream sequential β-lyase-derived thiol metabolism in preclinical species and human. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study investigated the most appropriate in vitro system to assess the biotransformation of the low-turnover and extensively metabolized compound TAK-041, determine any notable species difference in the rate and in the extent of its metabolic pathways, and establish correlation with in vivo metabolism. The HepatoPac model was identified and showed its suitability for species comparison and establishing correlation, with in vivo metabolism displaying an extensive and unusual downstream sequential β-lyase-derived thiol metabolism in preclinical species and human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Kamel
- Global Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Takeda California Inc., San Diego, California (A.K., S.B., N.H.) and Clinical and Neuroscience Therapeutic Area, Takeda Boston Inc., Boston, Massachusetts (D.A., A.L.)
| | - Steve Bowlin
- Global Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Takeda California Inc., San Diego, California (A.K., S.B., N.H.) and Clinical and Neuroscience Therapeutic Area, Takeda Boston Inc., Boston, Massachusetts (D.A., A.L.)
| | - Natalie Hosea
- Global Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Takeda California Inc., San Diego, California (A.K., S.B., N.H.) and Clinical and Neuroscience Therapeutic Area, Takeda Boston Inc., Boston, Massachusetts (D.A., A.L.)
| | - Dimitrios Arkilo
- Global Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Takeda California Inc., San Diego, California (A.K., S.B., N.H.) and Clinical and Neuroscience Therapeutic Area, Takeda Boston Inc., Boston, Massachusetts (D.A., A.L.)
| | - Antonio Laurenza
- Global Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Takeda California Inc., San Diego, California (A.K., S.B., N.H.) and Clinical and Neuroscience Therapeutic Area, Takeda Boston Inc., Boston, Massachusetts (D.A., A.L.)
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Dey SK, Saini M, Prabhakar P, Kundu S. Dopamine β hydroxylase as a potential drug target to combat hypertension. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2020; 29:1043-1057. [DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2020.1795830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Kumar Dey
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Camp us , New Delhi, India
| | - Manisha Saini
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Camp us , New Delhi, India
| | - Pankaj Prabhakar
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Camp us , New Delhi, India
| | - Suman Kundu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Camp us , New Delhi, India
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Manier SK, Felske C, Eckstein N, Meyer MR. The metabolic fate of two new psychoactive substances - 2-aminoindane and N-methyl-2-aminoindane - studied in vitro and in vivo to support drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:145-151. [PMID: 31667988 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of 2-aminoindane (2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, 2-AI), and N-methyl-2-aminoindane (N-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, NM-2-AI) after incubations using pooled human liver microsomes (pHLMs), pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9), and rat urine after oral administration. After analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry, pHLM incubations revealed that 2-AI was left unmetabolized, while NM-2-AI formed a hydroxylamine and diastereomers of a metabolite formed after hydroxylation in beta position. Incubations using pS9 led to the formation of an acetyl conjugation in the case of 2-AI and merely a hydroxylamine for NM-2-AI. Investigations on rat urine showed that 2-AI was hydroxylated also forming diasteromers as described for NM-2-AI or acetylated similar to incubations using pS9. All hydroxylated metabolites of NM-2-AI except the hydroxylamine were found in rat urine as additional sulfates. Assuming similar patterns in humans, urine screening procedures might be focused on the parent compounds but should also include their metabolites. An activity screening using human recombinant N-acetyl transferase (NAT) isoforms 1 and 2 revealed that 2-AI was acetylated exclusively by NAT2, which is polymorphically expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha K Manier
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
| | - Christina Felske
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany.,Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Niels Eckstein
- Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
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Tang H, Mayersohn M. Porcine Prediction of Pharmacokinetic Parameters in People: A Pig in a Poke? Drug Metab Dispos 2018; 46:1712-1724. [PMID: 30171162 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.118.083311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The minipig has become an animal of considerable interest in preclinical drug development. It has been used in toxicology research and in examining/establishing regulatory guidelines as a nonrodent animal model. We have reviewed some basic issues that one would want to consider in the development and testing of any animal model for humans. The pig is a reasonable alternative to the dog, but there are some clear limitations and unexplained disparities in the literature, which require further study; primary among these is the need for standardization in choice of breed and sex and routine protocols. The minipig offers numerous advantages over other established animal models, and it has similarities to the human with regard to anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry. The gastrointestinal tract is structurally and functionally similar to humans. This appears to be true for enzymes and transporters in the gut as well, but more study is needed. One major concern is assessment of oral drug absorption, especially with regard to potential food effects due to gastric emptying differences, yet this does not appear to be a consistent observation. Hepatic metabolism seems to reflect enzymatic patterns in humans, with some differences. Kidney function seems similar to humans but requires further study. We have analyzed literature data that suggest the pig would offer a reasonable model for human oral bioavailability and for allometric predictions of clearance. The minipig appears to be the model for dermal absorption in humans, and we discuss this in terms of literature data and our own in-house experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huadong Tang
- Guangzhou Dazhou Biomedicine, Guangzhou, China (H.T., M.M.); and Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona (M.M.)
| | - Michael Mayersohn
- Guangzhou Dazhou Biomedicine, Guangzhou, China (H.T., M.M.); and Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona (M.M.)
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9
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Martin IJ, Hill SE, Baker JA, Deshmukh SV, Mulrooney EF. A Pharmacokinetic Modeling Approach to Predict the Contribution of Active Metabolites to Human Efficacious Dose. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 44:1435-40. [PMID: 27260151 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.116.070391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A preclinical drug candidate, MRK-1 (Merck candidate drug parent compound), was found to elicit tumor regression in a mouse xenograft model. Analysis of samples from these studies revealed significant levels of two circulating metabolites, whose identities were confirmed by comparison with authentic standards using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. These metabolites were found to have an in vitro potency similar to that of MRK-1 against the pharmacological target and were therefore thought to contribute to the observed efficacy. To predict this contribution in humans, a pharmacokinetic (PK) modeling approach was developed. At the mouse efficacious dose, the areas under the plasma concentration time curves (AUCs) of the active metabolites were normalized by their in vitro potency compared with MRK-1. These normalized metabolite AUCs were added to that of MRK-1 to yield a composite efficacious unbound AUC, expressed as "parent drug equivalents," which was used as the target AUC for predictions of the human efficacious dose. In vitro and preclinical PK studies afforded predictions of the PK of MRK-1 and the two active metabolites in human as well as the relative pathway flux to each metabolite. These were used to construct a PK model (Berkeley Madonna, version 8.3.18; Berkeley Madonna Inc., University of California, Berkeley, CA) and to predict the human dose required to achieve the target parent equivalent exposure. These predictions were used to inform on the feasibility of the human dose in terms of size, frequency, formulation, and likely safety margins, as well as to aid in the design of preclinical safety studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain J Martin
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Susan E Hill
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - James A Baker
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sujal V Deshmukh
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Erin F Mulrooney
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, Boston, Massachusetts
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10
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Fan PW, Chen JZ, Allan Jaochico M, La H, Liu N, Mulder T, Cass RT, Durk M, Messick K, Valle N, Liu S, Lee W, Crawford JJ, Rudolf J, Murray LJ, Cyrus Khojasteh S, Wright M. Rate-Determining and Rate-Limiting Steps in the Clearance and Excretion of a Potent and Selective p21-Activated Kinase Inhibitor: A Case Study of Rapid Hepatic Uptake and Slow Elimination in Rat. Drug Metab Lett 2016; 10:91-100. [PMID: 27063863 PMCID: PMC5405622 DOI: 10.2174/1872312810666160411144358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Significant under-prediction of in vivo clearance in rat was observed for a potent p21-activated kinase (PAK1) inhibitor, GNE1. OBJECTIVE Rate-determining (rapid uptake) and rate-limiting (slow excretion) steps in systemic clearance and elimination of GNE1, respectively, were evaluated to better understand the cause of the in vitro-in vivo (IVIV) disconnect. METHODS A series of in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro experiments were carried out: 1) the role of organic cation transporters (Oct or Slc22a) was investigated in transporter knock-out and wild-type animals with or without 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) pretreatment; 2) the concentration-dependent hepatic extraction ratio was determined in isolated perfused rat liver; and 3) excreta were collected from both bile duct cannulated and non-cannulated rats after intravenous injection. RESULTS After intravenous dosing, the rate-determining step in clearance was found to be mediated by the active uptake transporter, Oct1. In cannulated rats, biliary and renal clearance of GNE1 accounted for only approximately 14 and 16% of the total clearance, respectively. N-acetylation, an important metabolic pathway, accounted for only about 10% of the total dose. In non-cannulated rats, the majority of the dose was recovered in feces as unchanged parent (up to 91%) overnight following intravenous administration. CONCLUSION Because the clearance of GNE1 is mediated through uptake transporters rather than metabolism, the extrahepatic expression of Oct1 in kidney and intestine in rat likely plays an important role in the IVIV disconnect in hepatic clearance prediction. The slow process of intestinal secretion is the rate-limiting step for in vivo clearance of GNE1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter W Fan
- Genentech, Inc. 1 DNA Way, MS 412a, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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11
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Cardiac safety profile of etamicastat, a novel peripheral selective dopamine-β-hydroxylase inhibitor in non-human primates, human young and elderly healthy volunteers and hypertensive patients. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcme.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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12
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Rioux N, Mitchell LH, Tiller P, Plant K, Shaw J, Frost K, Ribich S, Moyer MP, Copeland RA, Chesworth R, Waters NJ. Structural and Kinetic Characterization of a Novel N-acetylated Aliphatic Amine Metabolite of the PRMT Inhibitor, EPZ011652. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:936-43. [PMID: 25887455 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.064014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pharmacokinetic and metabolite identification studies were conducted to understand the clearance pathways of EPZ011652 [(2-aminoethyl)(methyl)({3-[4-(propan-2-yloxy)phenyl]-1H-pyrazol-4-yl}methyl)amine], a potent protein arginine N-methyltransferase inhibitor. Metabolic clearance was the major pathway of EPZ011652 elimination in rats with structural elucidation of metabolites via liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry (LC-MS(n)) accurate mass measurement revealing the formation of a novel aliphatic N-acetylated metabolite (M1) located on the terminal nitrogen of the ethylene-diamine side chain. EPZ015564, a synthetic standard of the N-acetyl product, was prepared and was also generated by human and rat, but not dog hepatocytes. In rat hepatocytes, on incubation with EPZ011652, the concentration of EPZ015564 initially increased before decreasing with incubation time, suggesting that the metabolite is itself a substrate for other metabolizing enzymes, in agreement with the identification of metabolites M2, M3, and M4 in rat bile, all N-acetylated metabolites, undergoing sequential phase I (demethylation, oxidation) or phase II (sulfation) reactions. Reaction phenotyping with recombinant human N-acetyltransferase (NAT) isoforms revealed that both NAT1 and NAT2 are capable of acetylating EPZ011652, although with different catalytic efficiencies. Kinetic profiles of EPZ015564 formation followed classic Michaelis-Menten behavior with apparent Km values of >1000 μM for NAT1 and 165 ± 14.1 µM for NAT2. The in vitro intrinsic clearance for EPZ011652 by NAT2 (110 μL/min/mg) was 500-fold greater than by NAT1. In summary, we report the unusual N-acetylation of an aliphatic amine and discuss the implications for drug discovery and clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Rioux
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Lorna H Mitchell
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Philip Tiller
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Katie Plant
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Joanne Shaw
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Kerry Frost
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Scott Ribich
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Mikel P Moyer
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Robert A Copeland
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Richard Chesworth
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Nigel J Waters
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
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Loureiro AI, Soares-da-Silva P. Distribution and pharmacokinetics of etamicastat and its N-acetylated metabolite (BIA 5-961) in dog and monkey. Xenobiotica 2015; 45:903-11. [PMID: 25869244 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1024780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
1. The disposition etamicastat was evaluated in the Cynomolgus monkey after intravenous and oral administration of [(14)C]-etamicastat. The pharmacokinetics of etamicastat and its N-acetylated metabolite BIA 5-961 were also evaluated in monkeys and dogs. 2. In the monkey, 7 days after intravenous and oral administration of [(14)C]-etamicastat, 76.6-91.1% of the etamicastat-related radioactivity had been excreted mainly in urine. The radioactivity peaked in plasma between 4- and 8-h post-dosing followed by a quick decline and a slow terminal phase (half-life of 68.7 h). The calculated oral bioavailability for etamicastat was 46.1%. Etamicastat was quickly absorbed in monkeys and dogs with a half-life ranging from 5.2 to 9.9 h in monkeys and 6.9 to 11.4 h in dogs over. 3. The N-acetylated metabolite of etamicastat, represented 4-7% of the extent of exposure of etamicastat in the monkey, but was not found detectable in dogs. Gender did not influence etamicastat exposure and the concentration versus time curves fitted a dose-dependent pharmacokinetics in the dog, but not in the monkey. 4. In conclusion, etamicastat is rapidly absorbed and primarily excreted via urine in monkeys. Similarly, to humans, monkeys, unlike dogs, N-acetylate etamicastat and evidence that etamicastat pharmacokinetics is less than dose proportional.
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Affiliation(s)
- A I Loureiro
- a Department of Research and Development , BIAL - Portela & Ca. S.A., S Mamede do Coronado , Portugal and
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14
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Pires NM, Igreja B, Moura E, Wright LC, Serrão MP, Soares-da-Silva P. Blood pressure decrease in spontaneously hypertensive rats folowing renal denervation or dopamine β-hydroxylase inhibition with etamicastat. Hypertens Res 2015; 38:605-12. [PMID: 25854989 DOI: 10.1038/hr.2015.50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system has an important role in the development and progression of arterial hypertension. Catheter-based renal nerve ablation for the treatment of drug-resistant hypertension has recently been developed. An alternative strategy for the modulation of sympathetic nerve function is to reduce the biosynthesis of noradrenaline (NA) by inhibiting dopamine β-hydroxylase (DβH), the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of dopamine (DA) to NA in the sympathetic nerves. Renal denervation (RDN) surgery was performed in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) to evaluate the effect of RDN on the DA and NA levels and on blood pressure over a 28-day period. The selective peripheral DβH inhibitor etamicastat (30 mg kg (-1)day(-1)) was administered to another cohort of SHR. RDN and etamicastat treatment had no effect on the renal function, as assessed by measuring the water balance response, renal function and urinary electrolyte levels. RDN significantly decreased the systolic blood pressure (SBP) and the diastolic blood pressure (DBP). A gradual return of the SBP and the DBP to the high baseline levels was observed over time. Conversely, treatment with etamicastat resulted in a significant decrease in the SBP and the DBP at all time points. On the last day of the assessment, NA levels in renal tissue were significantly decreased in both RDN and etamicastat-treated groups. In contrast, the NA levels in the left ventricle were decreased only in the etamicastat-treated group. Thus, RDN produces transitory decreases in blood pressure, whereas prolonged downregulation of sympathetic drive with the DβH inhibitor etamicastat results in a sustained decrease in the SBP and the DBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno Miguel Pires
- Department of Research & Development, BIAL-Portela & Ca, S.A., S. Mamede do Coronado, Portugal
| | - Bruno Igreja
- Department of Research & Development, BIAL-Portela & Ca, S.A., S. Mamede do Coronado, Portugal
| | - Eduardo Moura
- Department of Research & Development, BIAL-Portela & Ca, S.A., S. Mamede do Coronado, Portugal
| | | | - Maria Paula Serrão
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,MedInUP - Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrício Soares-da-Silva
- Department of Research & Development, BIAL-Portela & Ca, S.A., S. Mamede do Coronado, Portugal.,Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,MedInUP - Center for Drug Discovery and Innovative Medicines, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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15
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Cardiovascular safety pharmacology profile of etamicastat, a novel peripheral selective dopamine-ß-hydroxylase inhibitor. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 750:98-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Revised: 01/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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16
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Comparison of minipig, dog, monkey and human drug metabolism and disposition. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2014; 74:80-92. [PMID: 25545337 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2014.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This article gives an overview of the drug metabolism and disposition (ADME) characteristics of the most common non-rodent species used in toxicity testing of drugs (minipigs, dogs, and monkeys) and compares these to human characteristics with regard to enzymes mediating the metabolism of drugs and the transport proteins which contribute to the absorption, distribution and excretion of drugs. METHODS Literature on ADME and regulatory guidelines of relevance in drug development of small molecules has been gathered. RESULTS Non-human primates (monkeys) are the species that is closest to humans in terms of genetic homology. Dogs have an advantage due to the ready availability of comprehensive background data for toxicological safety assessment and dogs are easy to handle. Pigs have been used less than dogs and monkeys as a model in safety assessment of drug candidates. However, when a drug candidate is metabolised by aldehyde oxidase (AOX1), N-acetyltransferases (NAT1 and NAT2) or cytochrome (CYP2C9-like) enzymes which are not expressed in dogs, but are present in pigs, this species may be a better choice than dogs, provided that adequate exposure can be obtained in pigs. Conversely, pigs might not be the right choice if sulfation, involving 3-phospho-adenosyl-5-phosphosulphate sulphotransferase (PAPS) is an important pathway in the human metabolism of a drug candidate. DISCUSSION In general, the species selection should be based on comparison between in vitro studies with human cell-based systems and animal-cell-based systems. Results from pharmacokinetic studies are also important for decision-making by establishing the obtainable exposure level in the species. Access to genetically humanized mouse models and highly sensitive analytical methods (accelerator mass spectrometry) makes it possible to improve the chance of finding all metabolites relevant for humans before clinical trials have been initiated and, if necessary, to include another animal species before long term toxicity studies are initiated. In conclusion, safety testing can be optimized by applying knowledge about species ADME differences and utilising advanced analytical techniques.
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Igreja B, Pires NM, Bonifácio MJ, Loureiro AI, Fernandes-Lopes C, Wright LC, Soares-da-Silva P. Blood pressure-decreasing effect of etamicastat alone and in combination with antihypertensive drugs in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Hypertens Res 2014; 38:30-8. [DOI: 10.1038/hr.2014.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 08/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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18
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Loureiro AI, João Bonifácio M, Fernandes-Lopes C, Igreja B, Wright LC, Soares-da-Silva P. Etamicastat, a new dopamine-ß-hydroxylase inhibitor, pharmacodynamics and metabolism in rat. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 740:285-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Revised: 07/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Meyer MR, Robert A, Maurer HH. Toxicokinetics of novel psychoactive substances: Characterization of N-acetyltransferase (NAT) isoenzymes involved in the phase II metabolism of 2C designer drugs. Toxicol Lett 2014; 227:124-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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