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Workplace environmental exposure level guide: n-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone. Toxicol Ind Health 2022; 38:309-329. [PMID: 35658636 DOI: 10.1177/07482337221093838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
n-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is a widely used solvent with a mild amine-like odor that can exist in a vapor or aerosol at moderate temperatures. In humans, NMP was reported to induce weak and transient eye irritation and headache. NMP was not a dermal sensitizer and has a low acute toxicity via oral, dermal, and inhalation routes. NMP was not genotoxic/mutagenic in a battery of in vitro and in vivo studies. Furthermore, NMP was not carcinogenic in rats although species-specific liver tumors were identified in mice. Chronic studies in the rat provided a NOAEL of 10 ppm (40 mg/m3) causing only minor effects in males (slightly reduced mean body weight) at 100 ppm (400 mg/m3). Developmental toxicity was considered the critical endpoint (decreased fetal body weights at non-maternally toxic doses). Benchmark dose and PBPK models were utilized to derive an internal dose of 350-470 mg·h/L as a NOAEL for this response and a human equivalent air concentration of 350-490 ppm. With the application of adjustment factors, an 8-h time-weighted average WEEL value of 15 ppm (60 mg/m3) was derived and is expected to provide a significant margin of safety against any potential adverse health effects in workers. To address the potential for respiratory irritation, a short-term exposure level of 30 ppm (120 mg/m3) was derived, and a skin notation is assigned because of the contribution of dermal absorption to the systemic toxicity of NMP.
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Marquet F, Grandclaude MC, Ferrari E, Champmartin C. Capacity of an in vitro rat skin model to predict human dermal absorption: Influences of aging and anatomical site. Toxicol In Vitro 2019; 61:104623. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2019.104623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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3
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Using physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling and benchmark dose methods to derive an occupational exposure limit for N-methylpyrrolidone. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 76:102-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Revised: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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4
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Shah PP, Desai PR, Boakye CHA, Patlolla R, Kikwai LC, Babu RJ, Singh M. Percutaneous delivery of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone for the treatment of imiquimod-induced psoriasis. J Drug Target 2015; 24:537-47. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2015.1103743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Punit P. Shah
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA,
| | - Pinaki R. Desai
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA,
| | - Cedar H. A. Boakye
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA,
| | - Ram Patlolla
- Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories, Integrated Product Development, Bachupallyi, Hyderabad, India, and
| | - Loice C. Kikwai
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA,
| | - R. Jayachandra Babu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Mandip Singh
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA,
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Influence of water dilution on percutaneous absorption of N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone in vivo and ex vivo in rats and ex vivo in humans. Arch Toxicol 2014; 89:2007-14. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1342-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Schindler BK, Koslitz S, Meier S, Belov VN, Koch HM, Weiss T, Brüning T, Käfferlein HU. Quantification of Four Major Metabolites of Embryotoxic N-Methyl- and N-Ethyl-2-pyrrolidone in Human Urine by Cooled-Injection Gas Chromatography and Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2012; 84:3787-94. [DOI: 10.1021/ac300439w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Birgit K. Schindler
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephan Koslitz
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
| | - Swetlana Meier
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
| | - Vladimir N. Belov
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Facility for Synthetic Chemistry,
Am Fassberg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Holger M. Koch
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
| | - Tobias Weiss
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
| | - Thomas Brüning
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
| | - Heiko U. Käfferlein
- Institute for Prevention and
Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Ruhr-University Bochum (IPA), Bürkle-de-la-Camp
Platz 1, 44789 Bochum, Germany
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Abstract
Toxicity testing of new compounds is essential for drug development process. The preclinical toxicity testing on various biological systems reveals the species-, organ- and dose- specific toxic effects of an investigational product. The toxicity of substances can be observed by (a) studying the accidental exposures to a substance (b) in vitro studies using cells/ cell lines (c) in vivo exposure on experimental animals. This review mainly focuses on the various experimental animal models and methods used for toxicity testing of substances. The pre-clinical toxicity testing helps to calculate "No Observed Adverse Effect Level" which is needed to initiate the clinical evaluation of investigational products.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Parasuraman
- Department of Pharmacology, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India
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Determination of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone and its metabolites in urine by micellar electrokinetic chromatography. OPEN CHEM 2011. [DOI: 10.2478/s11532-011-0062-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractA fast and accurate micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MEKC) method was developed for monitoring N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) exposure. Baseline separation of NMP and its main metabolites: 5-hydroxy-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (5HNMP), N-methylsuccinimide (MSI), 2-hydroxy-N-methylsuccinimide (2HMSI), and 2-pyrrolidone (2P) was obtained within 6 min in an uncoated fused silica capillary using 5 mM phosphate buffer and 140 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate (pH 7.1) as background electrolyte (BGE). On-line UV-detection was performed at 200 nm and the applied electric field was 400 V cm−1. Possible interference of BGE-induced system peaks on separation was investigated by computer simulation and no such interference was observed. The developed MEKC method combined with solid phase extraction for sample preparation was successfully applied to the analysis of urine of rats exposed to NMP. The urinary excretion was determined in 0–6 h and 6–24 h specimens collected after an intragastic administration of 308 mg NMP / kg rat body weight. The results of NMP disposition kinetics in rat urine are reported for NMP and metabolites.
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Schumm P, Scoglio CM, van der Merwe D. A network model of successive partitioning-limited solute diffusion through the stratum corneum. J Theor Biol 2010; 262:471-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2009] [Revised: 09/28/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Poet TS, Kirman CR, Bader M, van Thriel C, Gargas ML, Hinderliter PM. Quantitative risk analysis for N-methyl pyrrolidone using physiologically based pharmacokinetic and benchmark dose modeling. Toxicol Sci 2009; 113:468-82. [PMID: 19875680 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Establishing an occupational exposure limit (OEL) for N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) is important due to its widespread use as a solvent. Based on studies in rodents, the most sensitive toxic end point is a decrease in fetal/pup body weights observed after oral, dermal, and inhalation exposures of dams to NMP. Evidence indicates that the parent compound is the causative agent. To reduce the uncertainty in rat to human extrapolations, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models were developed to describe the pharmacokinetics of NMP in both species. Since in utero exposures are of concern, the models considered major physiological changes occurring in the dam or mother over the course of gestation. The rat PBPK model was used to determine the relationship between NMP concentrations in maternal blood and decrements in fetal/pup body weights following exposures to NMP vapor. Body weight decrements seen after vapor exposures occurred at lower NMP blood levels than those observed after oral and dermal exposures. Benchmark dose modeling was used to better define a point of departure (POD) for fetal/pup body weight changes based on dose-response information from two inhalation studies in rats. The POD and human PBPK model were then used to estimate the human equivalent concentrations (HECs) that could be used to derive an OEL value for NMP. The geometric mean of the PODs derived from the rat studies was estimated to be 350 mg h/l (expressed in terms of internal dose), a value which corresponds to an HEC of 480 ppm (occupational exposure of 8 h/day, 5 days/week). The HEC is much higher than recently developed internationally recognized OELs for NMP of 10-20 ppm, suggesting that these OELs adequately protect workers exposed to NMP vapor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torka S Poet
- Battelle Pacific Northwest Division, Center for Biological Monitoring and Modeling, Richland, Washington 99352, USA.
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Buist HE, Schaafsma G, van de Sandt JJ. Relative absorption and dermal loading of chemical substances: Consequences for risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 54:221-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 04/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Nishimura S, Yasui H, Miyauchi H, Kikuchi Y, Kondo N, Takebayashi T, Tanaka S, Mikoshiba Y, Omae K, Nomiyama T. A cross-sectional observation of effect of exposure to N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) on workers' health. INDUSTRIAL HEALTH 2009; 47:355-362. [PMID: 19672008 DOI: 10.2486/indhealth.47.355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This study was aimed at clarifying the effect of exposure to N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) on workers' health. Fifteen male NMP-exposed workers and 15 referent male workers were recruited for this study. Exposure concentrations were assessed by determining NMP in the breathing zones and urinary NMP. Clinical examinations, motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities in the dominant arm, and neurobehavioral tests were carried out. The subjects were asked to complete self-administered questionnaires for subjective symptoms and psychological assessment. The mean NMP exposure concentrations ranged from 0.14 to 0.26 ppm, and urinary NMP levels at the end of each workday ranged from 0.17 to 0.22 mg/l, throughout the work week. In terms of clinical data, motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities, neurobehavioral tests, and subjective symptom assessments, there were no differences and no dose-dependent changes in either the means or the prevalence of abnormal findings between NMP-exposed and referent workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Nishimura
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Nagano 390-8621, Japan
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13
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Yokoi K, Kawaai T, Konomi A, Uchida Y. Dermal absorption of inorganic germanium in rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 52:169-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2008] [Revised: 07/07/2008] [Accepted: 07/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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14
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Yamaguchi K, Mitsui T, Aso Y, Sugibayashi K. Structure-permeability relationship analysis of the permeation barrier properties of the stratum corneum and viable epidermis/dermis of rat skin. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:4391-403. [PMID: 18228598 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate structure-permeability relationships for chemicals through stratum corneum (SC) and viable epidermis/dermis (VED). In vitro skin permeation of ten compounds through excised rat skin was analyzed based on a two-layer diffusion model and the diffusion coefficients in SC (D(SC)) and VED (D(VED)) were determined. The relationships between the permeation parameters and the physicochemical parameters (octanol-water partition coefficient (log K(o/w)), and hydrogen bond donor number (HBD)) of the compounds were analyzed. D(SC) increased as lipophilicity increased, whereas D(VED) decreased for log K(o/w) > 2. Increases in log K(o/w) caused a decrease in the permeability coefficient from SC through VED (P(VED/SC)) for log K(o/w) > 1. The simulation study suggests that the in vitro skin permeation of a highly lipophilic compound is strongly controlled by skin thickness due to low diffusivity in VED. The present study suggests that VED act as a considerable permeation barrier for highly lipophilic compounds due to low diffusivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Yamaguchi
- Fuji Gotemba Research Laboratories, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 1-135 Komakado, Gotemba, Shizuoka 412-8513, Japan.
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Yamaguchi K, Mitsui T, Yamamoto T, Shiokawa R, Nomiyama Y, Ohishi N, Aso Y, Sugibayashi K. Analysis of in Vitro Skin Permeation of 22-Oxacalcitriol Having a Complicated Metabolic Pathway. Pharm Res 2006; 23:680-8. [PMID: 16550468 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-006-9781-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2005] [Accepted: 12/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to analyze simultaneous skin permeation and metabolism of 22-oxacalcitriol (OCT) having several metabolites in skin by observing skin permeation of only unchanged OCT through excised rat skin. METHODS A diffusion model including metabolic processes was employed to express simultaneous skin permeation and metabolism of OCT. In vitro permeation experiments of OCT from Oxarol ointment through full-thickness and stripped rat skin were carried out using Franz-type diffusion cells. Time courses of unchanged OCT amounts in ointment, skin, and receptor fluid were determined and fitted to diffusion equations to obtain permeation parameters and a metabolic rate. RESULTS Fitting curves of the skin permeation profile obtained by the model were sufficiently close to observed data of unchanged OCT amounts in ointment, skin, and receptor fluid. The following parameters were obtained: metabolic rate of 1.37 x 10(-1) h(-1), and diffusion constants of OCT in stratum corneum (SC) (D(SC)) and viable epidermis and dermis (VED) (D(VED)) of 1.50 x 10(-7) and 2.96 x 10(-4) cm2/h, respectively. The partition coefficient of OCT for SC/ointment (K(SC/D)) was 7 times greater than that of VED/ointment (K(VED/D)). CONCLUSIONS The present analysis made it possible to calculate skin permeation parameters (partitioning, diffusivity, and metabolic rate) of OCT without requiring metabolic information, e.g., quantification of metabolites or identification of metabolic pathways. This would be widely applicable for drugs that are not suitable for conventional methods due to complicated metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Yamaguchi
- Fuji Gotemba Research Laboratories, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 1-135 Komakado, Gotemba, Shizuoka, 412-8513, Japan.
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Sitarek K, Kilanowicz A. Tissue Distribution and Excretion of N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone in Male and Female Rats. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2006; 19:142-8. [PMID: 17128812 DOI: 10.2478/v10001-006-0018-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) belongs to solvents widely used in the petrochemical industry a well as in the production of pesticides, veterinary drugs and paint removers. NMP is easily absorbed from the respiratory tract, digestive system and through the skin. It is a compound of slight acute toxicity that also displays moderate irritating activity. The aim of this study was to assess tissue distribution and excretion following a single intraperitoneal NMP administration. MATERIALS AND METHODS Tissue distribution and excretion of NMP following administration of a single dose of 250 mg/kg body weight (350 kBq/rat) was investigated using 14C. Blood plasma (6 rats per time point) were sampled up to 72 h after administration and determination of radioactivity. Male and female rats (4 animals per time point) were decapitated at appropriate time intervals and examined tissues were removed for determination of radioactivity. Excretion of 14C in urine and feces were also measured. All radioactivity measurements were carried out using a Rackbetta 1209 (LKB, Sweden) liquid scintillation counter. RESULTS The highest 14C activity in tissues and internal organs of female and male rats was observed 4 h after administration of the compound. The highest accumulation was detected in the muscles and fat tissue as well as in the liver and testicles. During 72 h following administration, approximately 80% of the dose was excreted in urine. Elimination of the compound in feces was far less significant: only about 5% of the dose was excreted at once. CONCLUSIONS The results of the study indicate that there are no significant differences in 14C-NMP tissue distribution between male and female rats; NMP absorption from the peritoneal cavity to blood is rapid, disappearance from plasma is monophase and kidneys are the main route of excretion of NMP and/or its metabolites from the rat body after administration of a dose equal to 10% of LD50. The ability to accumulate NMP and/or its metabolites in testes and seminal vesicles may be the reason for fertility impairment in male rats observed after repeated exposure to this compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna Sitarek
- Department of Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lódź, Poland.
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van der Merwe D, Brooks JD, Gehring R, Baynes RE, Monteiro-Riviere NA, Riviere JE. A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model of Organophosphate Dermal Absorption. Toxicol Sci 2005; 89:188-204. [PMID: 16221965 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfj014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The rate and extent of dermal absorption are important in the analysis of risk from dermal exposure to toxic chemicals and for the development of topically applied drugs, barriers, insect repellents, and cosmetics. In vitro flow-through cells offer a convenient method for the study of dermal absorption that is relevant to the initial processes of dermal absorption. This study describes a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model developed to simulate the absorption of organophosphate pesticides, such as parathion, fenthion, and methyl parathion through porcine skin with flow-through cells. Parameters related to the structure of the stratum corneum and solvent evaporation rates were independently estimated. Three parameters were optimized based on experimental dermal absorption data, including solvent evaporation rate, diffusivity, and a mass transfer factor. Diffusion cell studies were conducted to validate the model under a variety of conditions, including different dose ranges (6.3-106.9 microg/cm2 for parathion; 0.8-23.6 microg/cm2 for fenthion; 1.6-39.3 microg/cm2 for methyl parathion), different solvents (ethanol, 2-propanol and acetone), different solvent volumes (5-120 microl for ethanol; 20-80 microl for 2-propanol and acetone), occlusion versus open to atmosphere dosing, and corneocyte removal by tape-stripping. The study demonstrated the utility of PBPK models for studying dermal absorption, which can be useful as explanatory and predictive tools that may be used for in silico hypotheses generation and limited hypotheses testing. The similarity between the overall shapes of the experimental and model-predicted flux/time curves and the successful simulation of altered system conditions for this series of small, lipophilic compounds indicated that the absorption processes that were described in the model successfully simulated important aspects of dermal absorption in flow-through cells. These data have direct relevance to topical organophosphate pesticide risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- D van der Merwe
- Center for Chemical Toxicology Research and Pharmacokinetics, College of Veterinary Medicine, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, USA
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Carnerup MA, Saillenfait AM, Jönsson BAG. Concentrations of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) and its metabolites in plasma and urine following oral administration of NMP to rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2005; 43:1441-7. [PMID: 15951091 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2005.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2005] [Accepted: 04/18/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The primary aims were to study the metabolism in rats and to determine the biological levels after one oral developmentally toxic dose of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), a widely used industrial chemical. Non-pregnant female Sprague-Dawley rats were given an oral single dose of either a non-toxic dose of 125 mg NMP/kg (group 1) by gavage or a developmentally toxic dose of 500 mg/kg (group 2). Blood plasma (7 rats per time point) and urine (10 rats per time point) were sampled up to 72 h after administration and analyzed using mass spectrometry. In both plasma and urine NMP, 5-hydroxy-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (5-HNMP), N-methylsuccinimide and 2-hydroxy-N-methylsuccinimide (2-HMSI) and 2-pyrrolidone (2-P) were identified. In urine 48% of the administered dose was recovered as 5-HNMP and 2-5% as 2-HMSI. The total recovery in urine was 53-59%. The peak concentrations for NMP in plasma were 1.2 and 6.9 mmol/l, 0.42 and 0.76 mmol/l for 5-HNMP, 0.07 and 0.31 mmol/l for MSI and for 2-HMSI the concentrations were 0.02 and 0.05 mmol/l for groups 1 and 2, respectively. In summary, the same metabolites were found in rats as in humans and the biological levels were reported for NMP and its metabolites after oral exposure to a developmentally toxic dose and one non-toxic dose of NMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Carnerup
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University Hospital, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden.
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Bader M, Keener SA, Wrbitzky R. Dermal absorption and urinary elimination of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2005; 78:673-6. [PMID: 16001206 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-005-0008-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2004] [Accepted: 04/13/2005] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The dermal absorption of the solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) and its elimination in urine was investigated in an experimental study. METHODS Seven volunteers were exposed to 1045 mg of liquid NMP under occlusive conditions for 2 h. Urine was collected before, during and up to 72 h after the exposure and analysed for NMP by GC/MS after liquid-liquid extraction. Additionally, the remaining NMP in the pads was determined to estimate the total dermal uptake. RESULTS The concentration of NMP in urine increased rapidly after beginning of the exposure up to 1 h after the exposure was completed. A peak concentration of 1,836+/-863 microg/l was observed, the half-life in urine was 3.2 h. About 0.5% of the absorbed dose was excreted metabolically unchanged. An average dermal absorption of 5.5 mg cm(-2) h(-1) was calculated. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study show that the percutaneous absorption of NMP may contribute significantly to the overall uptake of the solvent, e.g. in the workplace. Therefore, a biological monitoring of NMP exposed workers is essential for occupational-medical surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Bader
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, D-30625, Hannover, Germany.
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Lee PJ, Langer R, Shastri VP. Role of n-methyl Pyrrolidone in the Enhancement of Aqueous Phase Transdermal Transport. J Pharm Sci 2005; 94:912-7. [PMID: 15736187 DOI: 10.1002/jps.20291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The role of n-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) as an enhancer for permeants delivered from an aqueous phase was investigated in the transdermal delivery of the local anesthetics lidocaine free base, lidocaine-hydrochloride (HCl), and prilocaine-HCl. Lidocaine free-base flux increased from H2O/NMP binary systems containing over 50% (v/v) NMP with significant flux enhancement observed above 80% NMP. In this range, drug flux was found to correlate with NMP flux. The addition of oleic acid (1% w/v) further enhanced lidocaine flux sixfold, in these formulations. The H2O/NMP (50% v/v) system enhanced the transport of water-soluble hydrochloride salt derivatives of lidocaine and prilocaine by factors of 4.3 and 2.6, respectively, indicating that NMP was capable of enhancing hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs from an aqueous phase. These findings were consistent with the model that NMP flux across the stratum corneum improves the transport of formulation solutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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