1
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Zheng Y, Feng J, Ling M, Yu Y, Tao Y, Wang X. A comprehensive review on targeting cluster of differentiation: An attractive strategy for inhibiting viruses through host proteins. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 269:132200. [PMID: 38723834 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Viral infections continue to pose a significant global public health threat. Targeting host proteins, such as cluster of differentiation (CD) macromolecules, may offer a promising alternative approach to developing antiviral treatments. CDs are cell-surface biological macromolecules mainly expressed on leukocytes that viruses can use to enter cells, thereby evading immune detection and promoting their replication. The manipulation of CDs by viruses may represent an effective and clever means of survival through the prolonged co-evolution of hosts and viruses. Targeting of CDs is anticipated to hinder the invasion of related viruses, modulate the body's immune system, and diminish the incidence of subsequent inflammation. They have become crucial for biomedical diagnosis, and some have been used as valuable tools for resisting viral infections. However, a summary of the structures and functions of CDs involved in viral infection is currently lacking. The development of drugs targeting these biological macromolecules is restricted both in terms of their availability and the number of compounds currently identified. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the critical role of CD proteins in virus invasion and a list of relevant targeted antiviral agents, which will serve as a valuable reference for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youle Zheng
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Jin Feng
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Min Ling
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Yixin Yu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Yanfei Tao
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Xu Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China.
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2
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Inhibitors of the Sec61 Complex and Novel High Throughput Screening Strategies to Target the Protein Translocation Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222112007. [PMID: 34769437 PMCID: PMC8585047 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222112007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteins targeted to the secretory pathway start their intracellular journey by being transported across biological membranes such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). A central component in this protein translocation process across the ER is the Sec61 translocon complex, which is only intracellularly expressed and does not have any enzymatic activity. In addition, Sec61 translocon complexes are difficult to purify and to reconstitute. Screening for small molecule inhibitors impairing its function has thus been notoriously difficult. However, such translocation inhibitors may not only be valuable tools for cell biology, but may also represent novel anticancer drugs, given that cancer cells heavily depend on efficient protein translocation into the ER to support their fast growth. In this review, different inhibitors of protein translocation will be discussed, and their specific mode of action will be compared. In addition, recently published screening strategies for small molecule inhibitors targeting the whole SRP-Sec61 targeting/translocation pathway will be summarized. Of note, slightly modified assays may be used in the future to screen for substances affecting SecYEG, the bacterial ortholog of the Sec61 complex, in order to identify novel antibiotic drugs.
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3
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Berger K, Pauwels E, Parkinson G, Landberg G, Le T, Demillo VG, Lumangtad LA, Jones DE, Islam MA, Olsen R, Kapri T, Intasiri A, Vermeire K, Rhost S, Bell TW. Reduction of Progranulin-Induced Breast Cancer Stem Cell Propagation by Sortilin-Targeting Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) Compounds. J Med Chem 2021; 64:12865-12876. [PMID: 34428050 PMCID: PMC10501753 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) compounds selectively down-modulate two human proteins of potential therapeutic interest, cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) and sortilin. Progranulin is secreted from some breast cancer cells, causing dedifferentiation of receiving cancer cells and cancer stem cell proliferation. Inhibition of progranulin binding to sortilin, its main receptor, can block progranulin-induced metastatic breast cancer using a triple-negative in vivo xenograft model. In the current study, seven CADA compounds (CADA, VGD020, VGD071, TL020, TL023, LAL014, and DJ010) were examined for reduction of cellular sortilin expression and progranulin-induced breast cancer stem cell propagation. In addition, inhibition of progranulin-induced mammosphere formation was examined and found to be most significant for TL020, TL023, VGD071, and LAL014. Full experimental details are given for the synthesis and characterization of the four new compounds (TL020, TL023, VGD071, and DJ010). Comparison of solubilities, potencies, and cytotoxicities identified VGD071 as a promising candidate for future studies using mouse breast cancer models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karoline Berger
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 413 90 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Eva Pauwels
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Gabrielle Parkinson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 413 90 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Göran Landberg
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 413 90 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Truc Le
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Violeta G Demillo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Liezel A Lumangtad
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
- Nanosyn, 3100 Central Expressway, Santa Clara, California 95051, United States
| | - Dylan E Jones
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Md Azizul Islam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Ryan Olsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Topprasad Kapri
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Amarawan Intasiri
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Kurt Vermeire
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sara Rhost
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 413 90 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Thomas W Bell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
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4
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Pauwels E, Rutz C, Provinciael B, Stroobants J, Schols D, Hartmann E, Krause E, Stephanowitz H, Schülein R, Vermeire K. A Proteomic Study on the Membrane Protein Fraction of T Cells Confirms High Substrate Selectivity for the ER Translocation Inhibitor Cyclotriazadisulfonamide. Mol Cell Proteomics 2021; 20:100144. [PMID: 34481949 PMCID: PMC8477212 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2021.100144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) inhibits the cotranslational translocation of type I integral membrane protein human CD4 (huCD4) across the endoplasmic reticulum in a signal peptide (SP)–dependent way. Previously, sortilin was identified as a secondary substrate for CADA but showed reduced CADA sensitivity as compared with huCD4. Here, we performed a quantitative proteomic study on the crude membrane fraction of human T-cells to analyze how many proteins are sensitive to CADA. To screen for these proteins, we employed stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture technique in combination with quantitative MS on CADA-treated human T-lymphoid SUP-T1 cells expressing high levels of huCD4. In line with our previous reports, our current proteomic analysis (data available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD027712) demonstrated that only a very small subset of proteins is depleted by CADA. Our data also confirmed that cellular expression of both huCD4 and sortilin are affected by CADA treatment of SUP-T1 cells. Furthermore, three additional targets for CADA are identified, namely, endoplasmic reticulum lectin 1 (ERLEC1), inactive tyrosine-protein kinase 7 (PTK7), and DnaJ homolog subfamily C member 3 (DNAJC3). Western blot and flow cytometry analysis of ERLEC1, PTK7, and DNAJC3 protein expression validated susceptibility of these substrates to CADA, although with varying degrees of sensitivity. Additional cell-free in vitro translation/translocation data demonstrated that the new substrates for CADA carry cleavable SPs that are targets for the cotranslational translocation inhibition exerted by CADA. Thus, our quantitative proteomic analysis demonstrates that ERLEC1, PTK7, and DNAJC3 are validated additional substrates of CADA; however, huCD4 remains the most sensitive integral membrane protein for the endoplasmic reticulum translocation inhibitor CADA. Furthermore, to our knowledge, CADA is the first compound that specifically interferes with only a very small subset of SPs and does not affect signal anchor sequences. About 3007 proteins quantified in SILAC/MS study on CD4+ T-cells treated with CADA. Three new targets for CADA were identified: ERLEC1, PTK7, and DNAJC3. All CADA substrates carry cleavable signal peptides for translocation into ER. huCD4 remains the most sensitive substrate for the ER translocation inhibitor CADA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Pauwels
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Claudia Rutz
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Becky Provinciael
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joren Stroobants
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dominique Schols
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Enno Hartmann
- Centre for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, Institute of Biology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Eberhard Krause
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Heike Stephanowitz
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Ralf Schülein
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP), Berlin, Germany
| | - Kurt Vermeire
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium.
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5
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Claeys E, Pauwels E, Humblet-Baron S, Provinciael B, Schols D, Waer M, Sprangers B, Vermeire K. Small Molecule Cyclotriazadisulfonamide Abrogates the Upregulation of the Human Receptors CD4 and 4-1BB and Suppresses In Vitro Activation and Proliferation of T Lymphocytes. Front Immunol 2021; 12:650731. [PMID: 33968048 PMCID: PMC8097030 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.650731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The small molecule cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) down-modulates the human CD4 receptor, an important factor in T cell activation. Here, we addressed the immunosuppressive potential of CADA using different activation models. CADA inhibited lymphocyte proliferation with low cellular toxicity in a mixed lymphocyte reaction, and when human PBMCs were stimulated with CD3/CD28 beads, phytohemagglutinin or anti-CD3 antibodies. The immunosuppressive effect of CADA involved both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells but was, surprisingly, most prominent in the CD8+ T cell subpopulation where it inhibited cell-mediated lympholysis. Immunosuppression by CADA was characterized by suppressed secretion of various cytokines, and reduced CD25, phosphoSTAT5 and CTPS-1 levels. We discovered a direct down-modulatory effect of CADA on 4-1BB (CD137) expression, a survival factor for activated CD8+ T cells. More specifically, CADA blocked 4‑1BB protein biosynthesis by inhibition of its co-translational translocation into the ER in a signal peptide-dependent way. Taken together, this study demonstrates that CADA, as potent down-modulator of human CD4 and 4‑1BB receptor, has promising immunomodulatory characteristics. This would open up new avenues toward chemotherapeutics that act as selective protein down-modulators to treat various human immunological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Claeys
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Eva Pauwels
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Stephanie Humblet-Baron
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Adaptive Immunology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Becky Provinciael
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dominique Schols
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mark Waer
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Tracheal Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ben Sprangers
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kurt Vermeire
- KU Leuven Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Leuven, Belgium
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6
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Syntheses and anti-HIV and human cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) down-modulating potencies of pyridine-fused cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) compounds. Bioorg Med Chem 2020; 28:115816. [PMID: 33181479 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2020.115816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
CADA compounds selectively down-modulate human cell-surface CD4 protein and are of interest as HIV entry inhibitors and as drugs for asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes and some cancers. Postulating that fusing a pyridine ring bearing hydrophobic substituents into the macrocyclic scaffold of CADA compounds may lead to potent compounds with improved properties, 17 macrocycles were synthesized, 14 with 12-membered rings having an isobutylene head group, two arenesulfonyl side arms, and fused pyridine rings bearing a para substituent. The analogs display a wide range of CD4 down-modulating and anti-HIV potencies, including some with greater potency than CADA, proving that a highly basic nitrogen atom in the 12-membered ring is not required for potency and that hydrophobic substituents enhance potency of pyridine-fused CADA compounds. Cytotoxicities of the new compounds compared favorably with those of CADA, showing that incorporation of a pyridine ring into the macrocyclic scaffold can produce selective compounds for potently down-modulating proteins of medicinal interest.
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7
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Lumangtad LA, Bell TW. The signal peptide as a new target for drug design. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127115. [PMID: 32209293 PMCID: PMC7138182 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Many current and potential drug targets are membrane-bound or secreted proteins that are expressed and transported via the Sec61 secretory pathway. They are targeted to translocon channels across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by signal peptides (SPs), which are temporary structures on the N-termini of their nascent chains. During translation, such proteins enter the lumen and membrane of the ER by a process known as co-translational translocation. Small molecules have been found that interfere with this process, decreasing protein expression by recognizing the unique structures of the SPs of particular proteins. The SP may thus become a validated target for designing drugs for numerous disorders, including certain hereditary diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas W Bell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0216, USA.
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8
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Zou X, Yuan M, Zhang T, Wei H, Xu S, Jiang N, Zheng N, Wu Z. Extracellular vesicles expressing a single-chain variable fragment of an HIV-1 specific antibody selectively target Env + tissues. Theranostics 2019; 9:5657-5671. [PMID: 31534509 PMCID: PMC6735399 DOI: 10.7150/thno.33925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Antiretroviral therapy can effectively suppress HIV-1 replication in the peripheral blood to an undetectable level. However, elimination of the latent virus in reservoirs remains a challenge and is a major obstacle in the treatment of HIV-1-infected patients. Exosomes exhibit huge promise as an endogenous drug delivery nanosystem for delivering drugs to solid tissues given their unique properties, including low immunogenicity, innate stability, high delivery efficiency, and most importantly the ability to penetrate solid tissues due to their lipophilic properties. Methods: We engineered and expressed the scFv of a high affinity HIV-1-specific monoclonal antibody, 10E8, on the exosomal surface (10E8scFv-exos). Subsequently, the 10E8scFv-exos were loaded with curcumin (Cur), a chemical that kills HIV-1-infected cells, or miR-143, an apoptosis-inducing miRNA. We tested the ability of 10E8scFv-exos to deliver cargo to Env+ target cells and tissues, as well as their ability to suppress HIV-1 infection. Results: 10E8scFv-exos efficiently targeted CHO cells expressing a trimeric gp140 on their surface (Env+ cells) in vitro, as demonstrated by confocal imaging and flow cytometry. 10E8scFv-exos loaded with Cur or miR-143 showed specific killing of Env+ cells. In addition, 10E8scFv-exos loaded with Cur or miR-143 could suppress p24 expression in an HIV-1 latency cell line ACH2 and in PBMCs from an ART-treated HIV-1-infected patient. In an NCG mouse model grafted with tumorigenic Env+ CHO cells and which had developed solid tissue tumors, intravenously injected 10E8scFv-exos targeted the Env-expressing tissues and delivered Cur to induce a strong suppression of the Env+ tumor growth with low toxicity. Conclusion: In principle, engineered exosomes can deliver anti-HIV agents to solid tissues by specifically targeting cells expressing viral envelop proteins and inducing cell killing, suggesting that such an approach could be developed for eradicating virus-infected cells in tissue reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Zou
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Meng Yuan
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tongyu Zhang
- Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University, China
| | - Hongxia Wei
- Department of infectious disease, The Second Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine
| | - Shijie Xu
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Na Jiang
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Nan Zheng
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhiwei Wu
- Center for Public Health Research, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Medical School, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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9
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Ali R, Anugu S, Chawla R, Demillo VG, Goulinet-Mateo F, Gyawali S, Hamal S, Jones DE, Lamprecht K, Le T, Lumangtad LA, Pflug NC, Sama A, Scarbrough ED, Bell TW. Tsuji-Trost Cyclization of Disulfonamides: Synthesis of 12-Membered, 11-Membered, and Pyridine-Fused Macrocyclic Triamines. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:1254-1264. [PMID: 30729225 PMCID: PMC6356871 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Macrocyclic triamine disulfonamides can be synthesized by double Tsuji-Trost N-allylation reaction of open-chain disulfonamides with 2-alkylidene-1,3-propanediyl bis(carbonates). The previously used Atkins-Richman macrocyclization method generally gives lower yields and requires more tedious purification of the product. Solvent, palladium source, ligand, and concentration have all been varied to optimize the yields of two key 12-membered ring bioactive compounds, CADA and VGD020. The new approach tolerates a wide range of functional groups and gives highest yields for symmetrical compounds in which the acidities of the two sulfonamide groups are matched, although the yields of unsymmetrical compounds are still generally good. The method has also been extended to the synthesis of 11-membered rings, pyridine-fused macrocycles, and products bearing an ester or aryl substituent on the exocyclic double bond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rameez Ali
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Life Sciences and Bioengineering Center, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 60 Prescott Way, Worcester, Massachusetts 01606, United States
| | - Sreenivasa Anugu
- Lab
3J, GVK Biosciences Private Limited, Survey No. 125, 126, IDA Mallapur, Hyderabad 500 076, India
| | - Reena Chawla
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
- BIO5
Institute, Thomas W. Keating Bioresearch Building, University of Arizona, 1657 E. Helen Street, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United
States
| | - Violeta G. Demillo
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | | | - Sagar Gyawali
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Sunil Hamal
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Dylan E. Jones
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Katrin Lamprecht
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Truc Le
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Liezel A. Lumangtad
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
- Nanosyn, 3100 Central Expressway, Santa Clara, California 95051, United States
| | - Nicholas C. Pflug
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
- Institute
of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, Universitätstrasse
16, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Alekhya Sama
- Eliassen
Group, Inc., Biometrics, 20 Ellison Road, Somerset, New Jersey 08873, United States
| | - Emily D. Scarbrough
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
| | - Thomas W. Bell
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, United States
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10
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Malik T, Chauhan G, Rath G, Murthy RSR, Goyal AK. "Fusion and binding inhibition" key target for HIV-1 treatment and pre-exposure prophylaxis: targets, drug delivery and nanotechnology approaches. Drug Deliv 2017; 24:608-621. [PMID: 28240046 PMCID: PMC8241151 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2016.1228717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
More than 35 million people are living with HIV worldwide with approximately 2.3 million new infections per year. Cascade of events (cell entry, virus replication, assembly and release of newly formed virions) is involved in the HIV-1 transmission process. Every single step offers a potential therapeutic strategy to halt this progression and HIV fusion into the human host cell is one such stage. Controlling the initial event of HIV-1 transmission is the best way to control its dissemination especially when prophylaxis is concerned. Action is required either on the HIV’s or host’s cell surface which is logically more rational when compared with other intracellular acting moieties. Aim of this manuscript is to detail the significance and current strategies to halt this initial step, thus blocking the entry of HIV-1 for further infection. Both HIV-1 and the possible host cell’s receptors/co-receptors are under focus while specifying the targets available for inhibiting this fusion. Current and under investigation moieties are categorized based on their versatile mechanisms. Advanced drug delivery and nanotechnology approaches present a key tool to exploit the therapeutic potential in a boosted way. Current drug delivery and the impact of nanotechnology in potentiating this strategy are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanushree Malik
- a DBT Lab, Indo Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy , Moga , India and
| | - Gaurav Chauhan
- a DBT Lab, Indo Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy , Moga , India and.,b Centre for Nanosciences, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur , Kanpur , India
| | - Goutam Rath
- a DBT Lab, Indo Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy , Moga , India and
| | - R S R Murthy
- a DBT Lab, Indo Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy , Moga , India and
| | - Amit K Goyal
- a DBT Lab, Indo Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy , Moga , India and
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11
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Van Puyenbroeck V, Claeys E, Schols D, Bell TW, Vermeire K. A Proteomic Survey Indicates Sortilin as a Secondary Substrate of the ER Translocation Inhibitor Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA). Mol Cell Proteomics 2016; 16:157-167. [PMID: 27998951 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m116.061051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The small molecule CADA was shown to down-modulate the expression of human CD4 in a signal peptide-dependent way through inhibition of its cotranslational translocation across the ER membrane. Previous studies characterizing general glycoprotein levels and the expression of 14 different cell surface receptors showed selectivity of CADA for human CD4. Here, a PowerBlot Western Array was used as a screen to analyze the proteome of CADA-treated SUP-T1 human CD4+ T lymphocytes. This high-throughput monoclonal antibody panel-based immunoblotting assay of cellular signaling proteins revealed that only a small subset of the 444 detected proteins was differentially expressed after treatment with CADA. Validation of these proteomic data with optimized immunoblot analysis confirmed the CADA-induced change in expression of the cell cycle progression regulator pRb2 and the transcription factor c-Jun. However, the up-regulation of pRb2 or down-modulation of c-Jun by CADA had no impact on cell cycle transition. Also, the reduced protein level of human CD4 did not inhibit T cell receptor signaling. Interestingly, the signal peptide-containing membrane protein sortilin was identified as a new substrate for CADA. Both cellular expression and in vitro cotranslational translocation of sortilin were significantly reduced by CADA, although to a lesser extent as compared with human CD4. Our data demonstrate that a small signal peptide-binding drug is able to down-modulate the expression of human CD4 and sortilin, apparently with low impact on the cellular proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Van Puyenbroeck
- From the ‡KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elisa Claeys
- From the ‡KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dominique Schols
- From the ‡KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Thomas W Bell
- §Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
| | - Kurt Vermeire
- From the ‡KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium;
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12
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Soleimani Farsani M, Behbahani M, Isfahani HZ. The Effect of Root, Shoot and Seed Extracts of The Iranian Thymus L. (Family: Lamiaceae) Species on HIV-1 Replication and CD4 Expression. CELL JOURNAL 2016; 18:255-61. [PMID: 27540531 PMCID: PMC4988425 DOI: 10.22074/cellj.2016.4321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Objective The genus Thymus L. is a cushion plant that was previously used for the treatment
of bronchitis and rheumatism. The present investigation was carried out to study the
effects of root, shoot, leaf and seed extracts of five Thymus species and subspecies on
peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) toxicity and HIV-1 replication.
Materials and Methods In this experimental study, the activity of the Thymus extracts
on HIV-1 replication and lymphocytes population were examined respectively using HIV-1
p24 Antigen kit and flow-cytometer. The Thymus species effect was investigated, including
Thymus kotschyanus, Thymus vulgaris, Thymus carmanicus, Thymus daenensis subspecies lancifolius and Thymus daenensis subspecies daenensis.
Results The effect of root methanol extracts of all species on PBMCs proliferation was
significantly higher than the other extracts. The intensity of CD4, CD3 and CD45 were
decreased in the presence of all root extracts. Although the average median fluorescence
intensity (MFI) values of CD19 were increased in the cells treated with these extracts. All
methanol extracts showed anti-HIV-1 activity at high concentrations (200 and 500 µg/ml).
Anti-HIV-1 activity of Thymus daenensis subspecies daenensis was significantly more
than the other species.
Conclusion These results demonstrated that root extracts of Thymus species might be
a good candidate to investigate anti-HIV infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Soleimani Farsani
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Sciences and Technologies, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mandana Behbahani
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Sciences and Technologies, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Hamid Zarkesh Isfahani
- Department of Immunology, Medical Sciences Faculty, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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13
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Chawla R, Van Puyenbroeck V, Pflug NC, Sama A, Ali R, Schols D, Vermeire K, Bell TW. Tuning Side Arm Electronics in Unsymmetrical Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Translocation Inhibitors to Improve their Human Cluster of Differentiation 4 (CD4) Receptor Down-Modulating Potencies. J Med Chem 2016; 59:2633-47. [PMID: 26974263 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cyclotriazadisulfonamide prevents HIV entry into cells by down-modulating surface CD4 receptor expression through binding to the CD4 signal peptide. According to a two-site binding model, 28 new unsymmetrical analogues bearing a benzyl tail group and nine bearing a cyclohexylmethyl tail have been designed and synthesized. The most potent new CD4 down-modulator (40 (CK147); IC50 63 nM) has a 4-dimethylaminobenzenesulfonyl side arm. One of the two side arms was varied with substituents in different positions. This gave a range of CD4 down-modulation potencies that correlated well with anti-HIV-1 activities. The side arms of 21 of the new benzyl-tailed analogues were modeled by means of quantum mechanical calculations. For CADA analogues with arenesulfonamide side arms, the pIC50 values for CD4 down-modulation correlated with the component of the electric dipole moment in the aromatic ring, suggesting that an attractive electronic interaction is a major factor determining the stability of the complex between the molecule and its target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reena Chawla
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada , 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216 United States
| | - Victor Van Puyenbroeck
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven-University of Leuven , 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicholas C Pflug
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada , 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216 United States
| | - Alekhya Sama
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada , 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216 United States
| | - Rameez Ali
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada , 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216 United States
| | - Dominique Schols
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven-University of Leuven , 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kurt Vermeire
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven-University of Leuven , 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Thomas W Bell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada , 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216 United States
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14
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Kalies KU, Römisch K. Inhibitors of Protein Translocation Across the ER Membrane. Traffic 2015; 16:1027-38. [PMID: 26122014 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Protein translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) constitutes the first step of protein secretion. ER protein import is essential in all eukaryotic cells and is particularly critical in fast-growing tumour cells. Thus, the process can serve as target both for potential cancer drugs and for bacterial virulence factors. Inhibitors of protein transport across the ER membrane range from broad-spectrum to highly substrate-specific and can interfere with virtually any stage of this multistep process, and even with transport of endocytosed antigens into the cytosol for cross-presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Uwe Kalies
- Institute of Biology, CSCM, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Karin Römisch
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology VIII, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
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15
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Vermeire K, Bell TW, Van Puyenbroeck V, Giraut A, Noppen S, Liekens S, Schols D, Hartmann E, Kalies KU, Marsh M. Signal peptide-binding drug as a selective inhibitor of co-translational protein translocation. PLoS Biol 2014; 12:e1002011. [PMID: 25460167 PMCID: PMC4251836 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotic cells, surface expression of most type I transmembrane proteins requires translation and simultaneous insertion of the precursor protein into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane for subsequent routing to the cell surface. This co-translational translocation pathway is initiated when a hydrophobic N-terminal signal peptide (SP) on the nascent protein emerges from the ribosome, binds the cytosolic signal recognition particle (SRP), and targets the ribosome-nascent chain complex to the Sec61 translocon, a universally conserved protein-conducting channel in the ER-membrane. Despite their common function in Sec61 targeting and ER translocation, SPs have diverse but unique primary sequences. Thus, drugs that recognise SPs could be exploited to inhibit translocation of specific proteins into the ER. Here, through flow cytometric analysis the small-molecule macrocycle cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) is identified as a highly selective human CD4 (hCD4) down-modulator. We show that CADA inhibits CD4 biogenesis and that this is due to its ability to inhibit co-translational translocation of CD4 into the lumen of the ER, both in cells as in a cell-free in vitro translation/translocation system. The activity of CADA maps to the cleavable N-terminal SP of hCD4. Moreover, through surface plasmon resonance analysis we were able to show direct binding of CADA to the SP of hCD4 and identify this SP as the target of our drug. Furthermore, CADA locks the SP in the translocon during a post-targeting step, possibly in a folded state, and prevents the translocation of the associated protein into the ER lumen. Instead, the precursor protein is routed to the cytosol for degradation. These findings demonstrate that a synthetic, cell-permeable small-molecule can be developed as a SP-binding drug to selectively inhibit protein translocation and to reversibly regulate the expression of specific target proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Vermeire
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Institute of Biology, CSCM, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- MRC-Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas W. Bell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Victor Van Puyenbroeck
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anne Giraut
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sam Noppen
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sandra Liekens
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dominique Schols
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Enno Hartmann
- Institute of Biology, CSCM, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Kai-Uwe Kalies
- Institute of Biology, CSCM, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Mark Marsh
- MRC-Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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16
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Behbahani M. Evaluation of anti-HIV-1 activity of a new iridoid glycoside isolated from Avicenna marina, in vitro. Int Immunopharmacol 2014; 23:262-6. [PMID: 25239814 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study was carried out to check the efficacy of methanol seed extract of Avicenna marina and its column chromatographic fractions on Peripheral Blood Mono nuclear Cells (PBMCs) toxicity and HIV-1 replication. The anti-HIV-1 activities of crude methanol extract and its fractions were performed by use of real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and HIV-1 p24 antigen kit. A time of drug addiction approach was also done to identify target of anti-HIV compound. The activity of the extracts on CD4, CD3, CD19 and CD45 expression in lymphocytes population was performed by use of flow cytometry. The most active anti-HIV agent was detected by spectroscopic analysis as 2'-O-(4-methoxycinnamoyl) mussaenosidic acid. The apparent effective concentrations for 50% virus replication (EC50) of methanol extract and iridoid glycoside were 45 and 0.1 μg/ml respectively. The iridoid glycoside also did not have any observable effect on the proportion of CD4, CD3, CD19 and CD45 cells or on the intensity of their expressions on PBMCs. In addition, the expression level of C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) and chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) on CD4(+) T cells were decreased in cells treated with this iridoid glycoside. The reduction of these two HIV coreceptors and the result of time of addition study demonstrated that this iridoid glycoside restricts HIV-1 replication on the early stage of HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandana Behbahani
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Sciences and Technologies, University of Isfahan 81746-73441 Isfahan, Iran
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17
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18
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Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters cells through a series of molecular interactions between the HIV envelope protein and cellular receptors, thus providing many opportunities to block infection. Entry inhibitors are currently being used in the clinic, and many more are under development. Unfortunately, as is the case for other classes of antiretroviral drugs that target later steps in the viral life cycle, HIV can become resistant to entry inhibitors. In contrast to inhibitors that block viral enzymes in intracellular compartments, entry inhibitors interfere with the function of the highly variable envelope glycoprotein as it continuously adapts to changing immune pressure and available target cells in the extracellular environment. Consequently, pathways and mechanisms of resistance for entry inhibitors are varied and often involve mutations across the envelope gene. This review provides a broad overview of entry inhibitor resistance mechanisms that inform our understanding of HIV entry and the design of new inhibitors and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J De Feo
- Office of Vaccine Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, 8800 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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19
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Bell TW, Demillo VG, Schols D, Vermeire K. Improving potencies and properties of CD4 down-modulating CADA analogs. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2011; 7:39-48. [PMID: 22468892 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.643865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION CADA is a synthetic small molecule that inhibits HIV replication in cell cultures through down-modulating cell surface CD4 by inhibiting cotranslational translocation of nascent CD4 across the ER membrane in a signal sequence-specific manner. Analogs have been prepared mainly to increase potency and investigate the mechanism of action. AREAS COVERED This article reviews progress on discovery of more potent CADA analogs, including symmetrical and unsymmetrical compounds, as well as fluorescent derivatives. The article also discusses some properties of CADA and a more potent analog (KKD023) that are relevant to drug development, including aqueous solubility, permeability, metabolism and oral bioavailability. EXPERT OPINION Further studies on CADA analogs should focus on improving both potency and drug-like properties, and on elucidating the detailed mechanism of action. Solubility and permeability may be improved by reducing molecular weight, decreasing molecular flexibility and symmetry, or by a prodrug approach inducing active transport. Identifying the molecular mechanism of CD4 down-modulation may aid in assessing potential side effects of such immunomodulatory/anti-HIV drugs, and it could potentially lead to a general approach to designing drugs for specifically down-modulating other cell-surface proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Bell
- University of Nevada, Department of Chemistry, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, USA.
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20
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Demillo VG, Goulinet-Mateo F, Kim J, Schols D, Vermeire K, Bell TW. Unsymmetrical cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) compounds as human CD4 receptor down-modulating agents. J Med Chem 2011; 54:5712-21. [PMID: 21800875 DOI: 10.1021/jm2002603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) inhibits HIV at submicromolar levels by specifically down-modulating cell-surface and intracellular CD4. The specific biomolecular target of CADA compounds is unknown, but previous studies led to an unsymmetrical binding model. To test this model, methods were developed for effective synthesis of diverse, unsymmetrical CADA compounds. A total of 13 new, unsymmetrical target compounds were synthesized, as well as one symmetrical analogue. The new compounds display a wide range of potency for CD4 down-modulation in CHO·CD4-YFP cells. VGD020 (IC(50) = 46 nM) is the most potent CADA compound discovered to date, and VGD029 (IC(50) = 730 nM) is the most potent fluorescent analogue. Structure-activity relationships are analyzed from the standpoint of additive or nonadditive energy effects of different substituents. They appear to be consistent with the zipper-type mechanism in which entropy costs are reduced for additional stabilizing interactions between the small molecule and its protein target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violeta G Demillo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557-0216, USA
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21
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Singh IP, Chauthe SK. Small molecule HIV entry inhibitors: Part II. Attachment and fusion inhibitors: 2004-2010. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2011; 21:399-416. [PMID: 21342055 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2011.550876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The first US FDA approved HIV entry inhibitor drug Enfuvirdine belongs to the fusion inhibitor category. Earlier efforts in this area were focused on peptides and monoclonal antibodies; recently, the focus has shifted towards the development of small molecule HIV attachment and fusion inhibitors. They can be used for prophylactic purposes and also hold potential for the development of HIV microbicides. AREAS COVERED In a previous paper ('Small molecule HIV entry inhibitors: Part I'), we reviewed patents and patent applications for small molecule chemokine receptor antagonists from major pharmaceutical companies. In this paper, the development of small molecule HIV attachment and fusion inhibitors is discussed in detail. It covers patents and patent applications for small molecule HIV attachment and fusion inhibitors published between 2004 and 2010 and related literature with a focus on recent developments based on lead generation and lead modification. EXPERT OPINION To augment the potency of currently available antiretroviral drug combinations and to fight drug-resistant virus variants, more effective drugs which target additional steps in the viral replication cycle are urgently needed. HIV attachment and fusion processes are such targets. Inhibitors of these targets will provide additional options for the treatment of HIV drug-resistant strains. Small molecule HIV attachment inhibitors such as BMS-378806 and analogs from Bristol Myers Squibb, N-aryl piperidine derivatives from Propharmacon, and NBD-556 and NBD-557 from New York Blood Center may have potential as vaginal microbicidal agents and can be an economical alternative to monoclonal antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inder Pal Singh
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Department of Natural Products, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab 160062, India.
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22
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Combinatorial approaches to the prevention and treatment of HIV-1 infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:1831-42. [PMID: 21343462 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00976-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in 1982 soon led to the identification and development of antiviral compounds to be used in treatment strategies for infected patients. Early in the epidemic, drug monotherapies frequently led to treatment failures because the virus quickly developed resistance to the single drug. Following the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1995, dramatic improvements in HIV-1-infected patient health and survival were realized as more refined combination therapies resulted in reductions in viral loads and increases in CD4+ T-cell counts. In the absence of an effective vaccine, prevention of HIV-1 infection has also gained traction as an approach to curbing the pandemic. The development of compounds as safe and effective microbicides has intensified and has focused on blocking the transmission of HIV-1 during all forms of sexual intercourse. Initial preclinical investigations and clinical trials of microbicides focused on single compounds effective against HIV-1. However, the remarkable successes achieved using combination therapy to treat systemic HIV-1 infection have subsequently stimulated the study and development of combination microbicides that will simultaneously inhibit multiple aspects of the HIV-1 transmission process by targeting incoming viral particles, virus-infected cells, and cells susceptible to HIV-1 infection. This review focuses on existing and developing combination therapies, covering preclinical development, in vitro and in vivo efficacy studies, and subsequent clinical trials. The shift in focus within the microbicide development field from single compounds to combination approaches is also explored.
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23
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De Clercq E. Yet another ten stories on antiviral drug discovery (part D): paradigms, paradoxes, and paraductions. Med Res Rev 2010; 30:667-707. [PMID: 19626594 DOI: 10.1002/med.20173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This review article presents the fourth part (part D) in the series of stories on antiviral drug discovery. The stories told in part D focus on: (i) the cyclotriazadisulfonamide compounds; (ii) the {5-[(4-bromophenylmethyl]-2-phenyl-5H-imidazo[4,5-c]pyridine} compounds; (iii) (1H,3H-thiazolo[3,4-a]benzimidazole) derivatives; (iv) T-705 (6-fluoro-3-hydroxy-2-pyrazinecarboxamide) and (v) its structurally closely related analogue pyrazine 2-carboxamide (pyrazinamide); (vi) new strategies for the treatment of hemorrhagic fever virus infections, including, as the most imminent, (vii) dengue fever, (viii) the veterinary use of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates; (ix) the potential (off-label) use of cidofovir in the treatment of papillomatosis, particularly RRP (recurrent respiratory papillomatosis); and (x) finally, the prophylactic use of tenofovir to prevent HIV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, K.U. Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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24
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Audigé A, Taffé P, Rickenbach M, Battegay M, Vernazza P, Nadal D, Speck RF. Low postseroconversion CD4 count and rapid decrease of CD4 density identify HIV+ fast progressors. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2010; 26:997-1005. [PMID: 20715931 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2009.0263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4 expression in HIV replication is paradoxical: HIV entry requires high cell-surface CD4 densities, but replication requires CD4 down-modulation. However, is CD4 density in HIV+ patients affected over time? Do changes in CD4 density correlate with disease progression? Here, we examined the role of CD4 density for HIV disease progression by longitudinally quantifying CD4 densities on CD4+ T cells and monocytes of ART-naive HIV+ patients with different disease progression rates. This was a retrospective study. We defined three groups of HIV+ patients by their rate of CD4+ T cell loss, calculated by the time between infection and reaching a CD4 level of 200 cells/microl: fast (<7.5 years), intermediate (7.5-12 years), and slow progressors (>12 years). Mathematical modeling permitted us to determine the maximum CD4+ T cell count after HIV seroconversion (defined as "postseroconversion CD4 count") and longitudinal profiles of CD4 count and density. CD4 densities were quantified on CD4+ T cells and monocytes from these patients and from healthy individuals by flow cytometry. Fast progressors had significantly lower postseroconversion CD4 counts than other progressors. CD4 density on T cells was lower in HIV+ patients than in healthy individuals and decreased more rapidly in fast than in slow progressors. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) did not normalize CD4 density. Thus, postseroconversion CD4 counts define individual HIV disease progression rates that may help to identify patients who might benefit most from early ART. Early discrimination of slow and fast progressors suggests that critical events during primary infection define long-term outcome. A more rapid CD4 density decrease in fast progressors might contribute to progressive functional impairments of the immune response in advanced HIV infection. The lack of an effect of ART on CD4 density implies a persistent dysfunctional immune response by uncontrolled HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Audigé
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Taffé
- Data Center, Swiss HIV Cohort Study, CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Manuel Battegay
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pietro Vernazza
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cantonal Hospital, St. Gall, Switzerland
| | - David Nadal
- Experimental Infectious Diseases and Cancer Research, Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Children's Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roberto F. Speck
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
The advent of HIV-1 resistance to antiretroviral medications, the need for lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV-infected individuals, and the goal of minimizing ART-related adverse effects and toxicity all drive the need for new antiretroviral drugs. Two new classes of antiretroviral medications for HIV treatment, the CCR5 and integrase inhibitors, have recently been approved for use in patients in whom previous HIV treatment regimens have failed. These new agent classes are a welcome addition to other antiretroviral classes, which include nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors and fusion inhibitors. Maraviroc is a CCR5 co-receptor antagonist that blocks HIV binding to the CCR5 receptor, which is a CD4 co-receptor necessary for cell entry. It is approved for use in ART-experienced patients with CCR5-tropic HIV, and was found to significantly reduce HIV viral load and increase CD4+ cell count when combined with an optimized background ART regimen (OBR). Treatment failure with maraviroc has been described and is primarily associated with the presence of CXCR4-tropic virus. Vicriviroc is another CCR5 co-receptor antagonist that is in late clinical trials. Raltegravir is the first US FDA-approved HIV-1 integrase inhibitor. It is approved for use in ART-experienced patients and was found to significantly reduce HIV viral load and increase CD4+ cell counts compared with placebo in combination with an OBR. Raltegravir has also been studied in treatment-naive patients and was found to be non-inferior to an efavirenz-based regimen. Elvitegravir is another HIV-1 integrase inhibitor in clinical development. Other new antiretroviral agents in clinical development include PRO140, a monoclonal antibody against CCR5, and bevirimat, a maturation inhibitor that prevents late-stage gag polyprotein processing. A number of other drug targets, such as CCR5 co-receptor agonists, CXCR4 co-receptor antagonists, novel fusion inhibitors, and alternative antiretroviral strategies, such as immune stimulation and gene therapy, are under investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgitt Dau
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
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Qian K, Morris-Natschke SL, Lee KH. HIV entry inhibitors and their potential in HIV therapy. Med Res Rev 2009; 29:369-93. [PMID: 18720513 DOI: 10.1002/med.20138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses recent progress in the development of anti-HIV agents targeting the viral entry process. The three main classes (attachment inhibitors, co-receptor binding inhibitors, and fusion inhibitors) are further broken down by specific mechanism of action and structure. Many of these inhibitors are in advanced clinical trials, including the HIV maturation inhibitor bevirimat, from the authors' laboratories. In addition, the CCR5 inhibitor maraviroc has recently been FDA-approved. Possible roles for these agents in anti-HIV therapy, including treatment of virus resistant to current drugs, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keduo Qian
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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27
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Mastrolorenzo A, Maresca A, Rusconi S, Supuran CT. Update on the development of HIV entry inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.2217/17469600.2.5.479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
HIV fusion and entry are two steps in the viral lifecycle that can be targeted by several classes of antiviral drugs. The discovery of chemokines focused the attention on cellular co-receptors used by the virus for entering cells, and on the various steps of such processes that are subject to interactions with small molecules. Intense research has led to a wide range of effective compounds that are able to inhibit these initial steps of viral replication. All steps in the process of HIV entry into the cell may be targeted by specific compounds, grouped into three main classes (attachment inhibitors, co-receptor binding inhibitors and fusion inhibitors), which may be developed as novel antiretrovirals. Thus, several inhibitors of the gp120–CD4 interaction have been discovered (e.g., zintevir and BMS-378806). Small molecule chemokine receptor antagonists acting as HIV entry inhibitors have also been described recently, including those which interact with both the CXCR4 co-receptor (e.g., AMD3100, AMD3465, ALX40-4C, T22, T134 and T140) and CCR5 co-receptor antagonists (TAK-779, TAK-220, E913, AK-602 and NSC 651016 in clinical trials). Recently, a third family of antivirals started to be used clinically (in addition to reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors), with the advent of enfuvirtide (T20), the first fusion inhibitor to be approved as an anti-HIV agent. Some of these compounds demonstrated in vitro synergism with other classes of antivirals, thus offering the rationale for their combination in therapies for HIV-infected individuals. Many HIV entry and fusion inhibitors are currently being investigated in controlled clinical trials, and a number of them are bioavailable as oral formulations. In 2007, the US FDA approved maraviroc as an anti-HIV agent. Maraviroc is the product of a medicinal chemistry effort initiated following identification of an imidazopyridine CCR5 ligand from a high-throughput screen of the Pfizer compound file. Maraviroc demonstrated potent antiviral activity against all CCR5-tropic HIV-1 viruses tested, including 43 primary isolates from various clades and diverse geographic origin. Maraviroc was active against 200 clinically derived HIV-1 envelope-recombinant pseudoviruses, 100 of which were derived from viruses resistant to existing drug classes. Furthermore, in October 2007, the FDA announced the approval of raltegravir for the treatment of HIV-1 infection as part of combination antiretroviral therapy in treatment-experienced patients with evidence of HIV-1 replication despite optimized background antiretroviral therapy. At present, raltegravir is the only drug in the integrase inhibitor class approved for clinical use. With the approval of raltegravir, oral agents targeting all three constitutive viral enzymes, reverse transcriptase, protease and integrase, are now represented in FDA-approved therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Mastrolorenzo
- Università degli Studi di Firenze, Dipartimento di Scienze Dermatologiche, Centro MTS, Via degli Alfani 37, I-50121 Florence, Italy
| | - Alfonso Maresca
- Università degli Studi di Firenze, Dipartimento di Chimica, Laboratorio di Chimica Bioinorganica, Via della Lastruccia, 3, Rm. 188, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy
| | - Stefano Rusconi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche “Luigi Sacco”, Cattedra di Malattie Infettive e Tropicali, Università degli Studi, Ospedale Luigi Sacco, Via GB Grassi 74, 20157 Milano, Italy
| | - Claudiu T Supuran
- Università degli Studi di Firenze, Dipartimento di Chimica, Laboratorio di Chimica Bioinorganica, Via della Lastruccia, 3, Rm. 188, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy
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Riva DA, Fernández-Larrosa PN, Dolcini GL, Martínez-Peralta LA, Coulombié FC, Mersich SE. Two immunomodulators, curcumin and sulfasalazine, enhance IDV antiretroviral activity in HIV-1 persistently infected cells. Arch Virol 2008; 153:561-5. [PMID: 18175040 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-007-0023-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Since the appearance of resistance to antiretroviral treatment is unavoidable, the host cell's transcription factor NF-kappaB is a novel HIV target. The goal of this study was to characterize the effect of two immunomodulators, curcumin (Cur) and sulfasalazine (Sul), with a protease inhibitor, indinavir (IDV), on HIV-1 persistently infected CD4+ T-cells. Viral p24 antigen production, viral infectivity (tested on MAGI cells) and viral relative infectivity (viral infectivity/p24) were analysed. When used alone, both immunomodulators were able to reduce viral infectivity. When in combination, both 10 microM IDV plus 10 microM Cur and 10 microM IDV plus 250 microM Sul showed a significant reduction in viral infectivity and viral relative infectivity when compared to the reduction produced by IDV alone. Thus, the use of immunomodulators with IDV could help to reduce HIV-1 production in persistently infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Riva
- Laboratory of Virology, Department of Biochemistry, School of Science, University of Buenos Aires, Int. Güiraldes 2160, Pab2 P4, Ciudad Universitaria, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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29
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Pollicita M, Schols D, Aquaro S, Peumans WJ, Van Damme EJM, Perno CF, Balzarini J. Carbohydrate-binding agents (CBAs) inhibit HIV-1 infection in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) and efficiently prevent MDM-directed viral capture and subsequent transmission to CD4+ T lymphocytes. Virology 2007; 370:382-91. [PMID: 17928023 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2007] [Revised: 08/20/2007] [Accepted: 08/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrate-binding agents (CBAs) have been proposed as innovative anti-HIV compounds selectively targeting the glycans of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 and preventing DC-SIGN-directed HIV capture by dendritic cells (DCs) and transmission to CD4(+) T-lymphocytes. We now show that CBAs efficiently prevent R5 HIV-1 infection of human primary monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) cell cultures in the nanomolar range. Both R5 and X4 HIV-1 strains were efficiently captured by the macrophage mannose-binding receptor (MMR) present on MDM. HIV-1 capture by MMR-expressing MDM was inhibited by soluble mannose-binding lectin and MMR antibody. Short pre-exposure of these HIV-1 strains to CBAs is able to prevent virus capture by MDM and subsequent syncytia formation in cocultures of the CBA-exposed HIV-1-captured MDM and uninfected CD4(+) T-lymphocytes. The potential of CBAs to impair MDM in their capacity to capture and to transmit HIV to T-lymphocytes might be an important property to be taken into consideration in the eventual choice to select microbicide candidate drugs for clinical investigation.
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30
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Vermeire K, Lisco A, Grivel JC, Scarbrough E, Dey K, Duffy N, Margolis L, Bell TW, Schols D. Design and cellular kinetics of dansyl-labeled CADA derivatives with anti-HIV and CD4 receptor down-modulating activity. Biochem Pharmacol 2007; 74:566-78. [PMID: 17603023 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2007] [Revised: 05/11/2007] [Accepted: 05/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A new class of anti-retrovirals, cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) and its derivatives, specifically down-regulate CD4, the main receptor of HIV, and prevent HIV infection in vitro. In this work, several CADA derivatives, chemically labeled with a fluorescent dansyl group, were evaluated for their biological features and cellular uptake kinetics. We identified a derivative KKD-016 with antiviral and CD4 down-modulating capabilities similar to those of the parental compound CADA. By using flow cytometry, we demonstrated that the dose-dependent cellular uptake of this derivative correlated with CD4 down-modulation. The uptake and activity of the dansyl-labeled compounds were not dependent on the level of expression of CD4 at the cell surface. Removal of the CADA compounds from the cell culture medium resulted in their release from the cells followed by a complete restoration of CD4 expression. The inability of several fluorescent CADA derivatives to down-modulate CD4 was not associated with their lower cellular uptake and was not reversed by facilitating their cell penetration by a surfactant. These results prove the successful integration of the dansyl fluorophore into the chemical structure of a CD4 down-modulating anti-HIV compound, and show the feasibility of tracking a receptor and its down-modulator simultaneously. These fluorescent CADA analogs with reversible CD4 down-regulating potency can now be applied in further studies on receptor modulation, and in the exploration of their potentials as preventive and therapeutic anti-HIV drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Vermeire
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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31
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Balzarini J, Van Herrewege Y, Vermeire K, Vanham G, Schols D. Carbohydrate-binding agents efficiently prevent dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN)-directed HIV-1 transmission to T lymphocytes. Mol Pharmacol 2006; 71:3-11. [PMID: 17056872 DOI: 10.1124/mol.106.030155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure of HIV-1 to dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN)-expressing B-lymphoblast Raji cells (Raji/DC-SIGN) but not to wild-type Raji/0 cells results in the capture of HIV-1 particles to the cells as measured by the quantification of cell-associated p24 antigen. Cocultivation of HIV-1-captured Raji/DC-SIGN cells with uninfected CD4+ T lymphocyte C8166 cells results in abundant formation of syncytia within 36 h after cocultivation. Short preexposure of HIV-1 to carbohydrate-binding agents (CBA) dose dependently prevents the Raji/DC-SIGN cells from efficiently binding the virus particles, and no syncytia formation occurs upon subsequent cocultivation with C8166 cells. Thus, the mannose-specific [i.e., the plant lectins Hippeastrum hybrid agglutinin (HHA), Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA), Narcissus pseudonarcissus agglutinin; and Cymbidium agglutinin (CA); the procaryotic cyanovirin-N (CV-N); and the monoclonal antibody 2G12) and N-acetylglucosamine-specific (i.e., the plant lectin Urtica dioica agglutinin) CBAs efficiently abrogate the DC-SIGN-directed HIV-1 capture and subsequent transmission to T lymphocytes. In this assay, the CD4-down-regulating cyclotriazodisulfonamide derivative, the CXCR4 and CCR5 coreceptor antagonists 1-[[4-(1,4,8,11-tetrazacyclotetradec-1-ylmethyl)phenyl]methyl] - 1,4,8,11 - tetrazacyclotetradecane (AMD3100) and maraviroc, the gp41-binding enfuvirtide, and the polyanionic substances dextran sulfate (M(r) 5000), sulfated polyvinyl alcohol, and the naphthalene sulfonate polymer PRO-2000 were markedly less efficient or even completely ineffective. Similar observations were made in primary monocyte-derived dendritic cell cultures that were infected with HIV-1 particles that had been shortly pre-exposed to the CBAs CV-N, CA, HHA, and GNA and the polyanions DS-5000 and PRO-2000. The potential of CBAs, but not polyanions and other structural/functional classes of entry inhibitors, to impair DC-SIGN-expressing cells in their capacity of transmitting HIV to T lymphocytes might be an important property to be taken into consideration in the eventual choice to move microbicide candidate drugs to the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Balzarini
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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32
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Bell TW, Anugu S, Bailey P, Catalano VJ, Dey K, Drew MGB, Duffy NH, Jin Q, Samala MF, Sodoma A, Welch WH, Schols D, Vermeire K. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies of CD4 down-modulating cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) analogues. J Med Chem 2006; 49:1291-312. [PMID: 16480266 DOI: 10.1021/jm0582524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
HIV attachment via the CD4 receptor is an important target for developing novel approaches to HIV chemotherapy. Cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) inhibits HIV at submicromolar levels by specifically down-modulating cell-surface and intracellular CD4. An effective five-step synthesis of CADA in 30% overall yield is reported. This synthesis has also been modified to produce more than 50 analogues. Many tail-group analogues have been made by removing the benzyl tail of CADA and replacing it with various alkyl, acyl, alkoxycarbonyl and aminocarbonyl substituents. A series of sidearm analogues, including two unsymmetrical compounds, have also been prepared by modifying the CADA synthesis, replacing the toluenesulfonyl sidearms with other sulfonyl groups. Testing 30 of these compounds in MT-4 cells shows a wide range of CD4 down-modulation potency, which correlates with ability to inhibit HIV-1. Three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) models were constructed using comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA) approaches. The X-ray crystal structures of four compounds, including CADA, show the same major conformation of the central 12-membered ring. The solid-state structure of CADA was energy minimized and used to generate the remaining 29 structures, which were similarly minimized and aligned to produce the 3D-QSAR models. Both models indicate that steric bulk of the tail group, and, to a lesser extent, the sidearms mainly determine CD4 down-modulation potency in this series of compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Bell
- Department of Chemistry , University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, USA.
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33
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Briz V, Poveda E, Soriano V. [HIV entry into the cells--mechanisms and therapeutic possibilities]. Med Clin (Barc) 2006; 126:341-8. [PMID: 16650368 PMCID: PMC7131321 DOI: 10.1157/13085735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2005] [Accepted: 09/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) entry into cells is the first step in the viral replication cycle, which has been explored as a new therapeutic target. A better knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the entry process has led to the development of agents, which may inhibit each of the different steps of the viral entry process: attachment of the gp120 to the CD4 cell receptor; binding of the gp120 to CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptors; and the fusion of viral and cell membranes. Entry inhibitors are the latest family of antiretroviral compounds, being enfuvirtide, a fusion inhibitor, the first approved. Several other entry inhibitors are currently in clinical development and hopefully soon will be part of the therapeutic armamentarium against HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verónica Briz
- Servicio de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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34
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Briz V, Poveda E, Soriano V. HIV entry inhibitors: mechanisms of action and resistance pathways. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57:619-27. [PMID: 16464888 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkl027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Entry inhibitors represent a new generation of antivirals for the treatment of HIV infection. Several compounds which block the attachment of HIV gp120 to either the CD4 T cell receptor or the CCR5/CXCR4 co-receptors are currently in clinical development. Most of these compounds have different molecular structures and specific mechanisms of action. These agents are eagerly awaited by a growing number of patients carrying viruses resistant viruses to many of the current available reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors. For enfuvirtide, the first and, so far, only entry inhibitor approved for clinical use, the main mechanism of resistance is the selection of changes within a 10 amino acid segment encompassing residues 36-45 within the HR1 region of gp41. For other entry inhibitors, multiple changes in different gp120 domains (V1, V2, V3, C2 and C4) have been associated with loss of susceptibility to these agents, although in most cases with limited cross-resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verónica Briz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Carlos III, Calle Sinesio Delgado 10, Madrid, Spain
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35
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Vermeire K, Schols D. Anti-HIV agents targeting the interaction of gp120 with the cellular CD4 receptor. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2005; 14:1199-212. [PMID: 16185162 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.14.10.1199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Perhaps one of the most effective approaches to prevent and inhibit viral infections is to block host cell receptors that are used by viruses to gain cell entry. Major advances have been made over the past decade in the understanding of the molecular mechanism of HIV entry into target cells. A crucial step in this entry process is the interaction of the external HIV envelope glycoprotein, gp120, with the cellular CD4 receptor molecule. This binding step represents a potential target for new antiviral agents, and current efforts to develop safe and effective HIV entry inhibitors are focused on natural ligands and/or monoclonal antibodies that interfere with gp120/CD4 interaction. Also, small synthetic compounds obtained either by high-throughput screening of large compound libraries or by structure-guided rational design have recently entered the antiretroviral arena. In this review, the anti-HIV activity of novel entry inhibitors targeting gp120/CD4 interaction is outlined, and special attention is given to the cyclotriazadisulfonamide compounds, which are the most specific CD4-targeted antiviral drugs described so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Vermeire
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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36
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Vermeire K, Schols D. Cyclotriazadisulfonamides: promising new CD4-targeted anti-HIV drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56:270-2. [PMID: 15980096 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dki208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is imperative to continue efforts to identify novel effective therapies that can assist in containing the spread of HIV. Recently acquired knowledge about the HIV entry process points to new strategies to block viral entry. For most HIV strains, the successful infection of their target cells is mainly dependent on the presence of the CD4 surface molecule, which serves as the primary virus receptor. The attachment of the viral envelope to this cellular CD4 receptor can be considered as an ideal target with multiple windows of opportunity for therapeutic intervention. Therefore, drugs that interfere with the CD4 receptor, and thus inhibit viral entry, may be promising agents for the treatment of AIDS. The CD4-targeted HIV entry inhibitors cyclotriazadisulfonamides represent a novel class of small molecule antiviral agents with a unique mode of action. The lead compound, CADA, specifically interacts with the cellular CD4 receptor and is active against a wide variety of HIV strains at submicromolar levels when evaluated in different cell-types such as T cells, monocytes and dendritic cells. Moreover, a strict correlation has been demonstrated between anti-HIV activity and CD4 interaction of about 20 different CADA analogues. In addition, CADA acted synergistically in combination with all other FDA-approved anti-HIV drugs as well as with compounds that target the main HIV co-receptors. In this article, the characteristics of cyclotriazadisulfonamide compounds are presented and the possible application of CADA as a microbicide is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Vermeire
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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37
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Abstract
There are now exactly 20 anti-HIV drugs licenced (approved) for clinical use, and > 30 anti-HIV compounds under (pre)clinical development. The licensed anti-HIV drugs fall into five categories: nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs: zidovudine, didanosine, zalcitabine, stavudine, lamivudine, abacavir and emtricitabine); nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NtRTIs: tenofovir disoproxil fumarate); non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs: nevirapine, delavirdine and efavirenz); protease inhibitors (PIs: saquinavir, indinavir, ritonavir, nelfinavir, amprenavir, lopinavir, atazanavir and fosamprenavir); and fusion inhibitors (FIs: enfuvirtide). The compounds that are currently under clinical (Phase I, II or III) or preclinical investigation are either targeted at the same specific viral proteins as the licensed compounds (i.e., reverse transcriptase [NRTIs: PSI-5004, (-)-dOTC, DPC-817, elvucitabine, alovudine, MIV-210, amdoxovir, DOT; NNRTIs: thiocarboxanilide, UC-781, capravirine, dapivirine, etravirine, rilpivirine], protease [PIs: tipranavir, TMC-114]) or other specific viral proteins (i.e., gp120: cyanovirin N; attachment inhibitors: AIs, such as BMS-488043; integrase: L-870,812, PDPV-165; capsid proteins: PA-457, alpha-HCG); or cellular proteins (CD4 downmodulators: CADAs; CXCR4 antagonists: AMD-070, CS-3955; CCR5 antagonists: TAK-220, SCH-D, AK-602, UK-427857). Combination therapy is likely to remain the gold standard for the treatment of AIDS so as to maximise potency, minimise toxicity and diminish the risk for resistance development. Ideally, pill burden should be reduced to once-daily dosing so as to optimise the patient's compliance and reduce the treatment costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, K.U.Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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38
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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Abstract
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has led to major declines in morbidity and mortality of HIV-1-infected individuals, but the increasing prevalence of drug-resistant viral isolates, combined with the toxicity and other limitations of current treatments, make the development of new therapies a high priority. As knowledge of viral entry has expanded, this step of the viral life cycle has become a target for novel therapeutic strategies. An emerging group of antiretrovirals, known collectively as entry inhibitors, targets several distinct steps in viral entry including CD4 binding, chemokine receptor engagement and the structural changes in the viral envelope required for fusion between viral and cellular membranes. Many entry inhibitors are in various stages of clinical development, with one already licensed for use. This review will provide an overview of the mechanisms involved in the entry process, highlight promising entry blockers under development and discuss several considerations related to treatment that are unique to this class of antiretroviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Tomkowicz
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia 19104, USA
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40
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Abstract
Current targets for antiretroviral therapy (ART) include the viral enzymes reverse transcriptase and protease. The use of a combination of inhibitors targeting these enzymes can reduce viral load for a prolonged period and delay disease progression. However, complications of ART, including the emergence of viruses resistant to current drugs, are driving the development of new antiretroviral agents targeting not only the reverse transcriptase and protease enzymes but novel targets as well. Indeed, enfuvirtide, an inhibitor targeting the viral envelope protein (Env) was recently approved for use in combination therapy in individuals not responding to current antiretroviral regimens. Emerging drug targets for ART include: (i) inhibitors that directly or indirectly target Env; (ii) the HIV enzyme integrase; and (iii) inhibitors of maturation that target the substrate of the protease enzyme. Env mediates entry of HIV into target cells via a multistep process that presents three distinct targets for inhibition by viral and cellular-specific agents. First, attachment of virions to the cell surface via nonspecific interactions and CD4 binding can be blocked by inhibitors that include cyanovirin-N, cyclotriazadisulfonamide analogues, PRO 2000, TNX 355 and PRO 542. In addition, BMS 806 can block CD4-induced conformational changes. Secondly, Env interactions with the co-receptor molecules can be targeted by CCR5 antagonists including SCH-D, maraviroc (UK 427857) and aplaviroc (GW 873140), and the CXCR4 antagonist AMD 070. Thirdly, fusion of viral and cellular membranes can be inhibited by peptides such as enfuvirtide and tifuvirtide (T 1249). The development of entry inhibitors has been rapid, with an increasing number entering clinical trials. Moreover, some entry inhibitors are also being evaluated as candidate microbicides to prevent mucosal transmission of HIV. The integrase enzyme facilitates the integration of viral DNA into the host cell genome. The uniqueness and specificity of this reaction makes integrase an attractive drug target. However, integrase inhibitors have been slow to reach clinical development, although recent contenders, including L 870810, show promise. Inhibitors that target viral maturation via a unique mode of action, such as PA 457, also have potential. In addition, recent advances in our understanding of cellular pathways involved in the life cycle of HIV have also identified novel targets that may have potential for future antiretroviral intervention, including interactions between the cellular proteins APOBEC3G and TSG101, and the viral proteins Vif and p6, respectively. In summary, a number of antiretroviral agents in development make HIV entry, integration and maturation emerging drug targets. A multifaceted approach to ART, using combinations of inhibitors that target different steps of the viral life cycle, has the best potential for long-term control of HIV infection. Furthermore, the development of microbicides targeting HIV holds promise for reducing HIV transmission events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline D Reeves
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
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41
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Vermeire K, Princen K, Hatse S, De Clercq E, Dey K, Bell TW, Schols D. CADA, a novel CD4-targeted HIV inhibitor, is synergistic with various anti-HIV drugs in vitro. AIDS 2004; 18:2115-25. [PMID: 15577644 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200411050-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the anti-HIV-1 activity of the cyclotriazadisulfonamide CADA against primary isolates in vitro and the combination of CADA with approved anti-HIV drugs for potential synergy. METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were treated with CADA and infected with 16 different clinical isolates. After 8 days of infection, the median inhibitory concentration (IC50) was calculated from the p24 viral antigen content in the supernatant. MT-4 cells were infected with HIV-1NL4.3 and then cultured with CADA or other antiretroviral drugs (i.e., several reverse transcriptase, protease and entry inhibitors), alone and in combination. After 4 days, IC50 was determined for the various drugs in replicate assays. Analysis of combined effects was performed using the median effect principle (CalcuSyn; Biosoft). RESULTS The entry inhibitor CADA exerted a potent and consistent anti-HIV-1 activity against a wide range of R5, R5/X4 and X4 primary isolates in PBMC. From the two-drug studies, combination indices showed synergy between CADA and reverse transcriptase inhibitors (zidovudine, stavudine, lamivudine, zalcitabine, didanosine, abacavir, tenofovir, nevirapine, delavirdine and efavirenz), and protease inhibitors (lopinavir, saquinavir, indinavir, nelfinavir, amprenavir and ritonavir). In addition, the combination of CADA with the gp41 fusion inhibitor T-20 (enfuvirtide), the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 and the gp120-specific interacting plant lectins from Galanthus nivalis (GNA) and Hippeastrum hybrid (HHA) also resulted in a synergistic inhibition. CONCLUSIONS Compounds that can specifically downmodulate the CD4 receptor in PBMC have broad-spectrum anti-HIV activity against primary isolates and act synergistically when used in conjunction with currently available antiretroviral drugs. They deserve further study as potential candidate anti-HIV drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Vermeire
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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Crowe SM, Asjo B. Locking the door to HIV entry: how far can we go? AIDS 2004; 18:2197-8. [PMID: 15577654 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200411050-00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Sławiński J. Synthesis of a new series of 4-chloro-2-mercapto-5-methylbenzenesulfonamide derivatives with potential antitumor activity. Eur J Med Chem 2004; 39:179-88. [PMID: 14987826 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2003.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2003] [Revised: 07/15/2003] [Accepted: 09/10/2003] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The syntheses of S-(5-chloro-4-methyl-2-sulfamoylphenyl)alkanethio (or benzothio)hydrazonates (3a-3o) and potassium S-(5-chloro-2-cyanoamidatesulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)alkanethio (or benzothio)hydrazonates (4-10) are described. The compounds 3e, 3i-3o, 7 and 8 were screened at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) for their activities against a panel of 59 tumor cell lines and relationships between structure and antitumor activity in vitro are discussed. The compounds 3e, 3j, 3l-3o and 7 exhibited reasonable activity against numerous human tumor cell lines. The prominent compound 3l showed significant activity against some cell lines of leukemia (SR), melanoma (SK-MEL-5), CNS cancer (SF-539), ovarian cancer (OVCAR-3, OVCAR-4) and breast cancer (MDA-MB-231/ACTT) (GI50 values in the range 0.3-0.9 microM). Furthermore, compound 8 exhibited the high selectivity against renal cancer (A498) cells (GI50 < 0.01 microM, TGI = 2.3 microM and LC50 = 35.7 microM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarosław Sławiński
- Department of Chemical Technology of Drugs, Medical University of Gdańsk, Al. Gen. J. Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdansk, Poland.
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Vermeire K, Schols D. Specific CD4 down-modulating compounds with potent anti-HIV activity. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 74:667-75. [PMID: 12960237 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0403177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the availability of the current clinically approved anti-HIV drugs, new classes of effective antiviral agents are still urgently needed to combat AIDS. A promising approach for drug development and vaccine design involves targeting research on HIV-1 entry, a multistep process that comprises viral attachment, coreceptor interactions, and fusion. Determination of the viral entry process in detail has enabled the design of specific agents that can inhibit each step in the HIV entry process. Therapeutic agents that interfere with the binding of the HIV envelope glycoprotein gp120 to the CD4 receptor (e.g., PRO 542, PRO 2000, and CV-N) or the coreceptors CCR5 and CXCR4 (e.g., SCH-C and AMD3100) are briefly outlined in this review. The anti-HIV activity of cyclotriazadisulfonamides, a novel class of compounds with a unique mode of action by down-modulating the CD4 receptor in lymphocytic and monocytic cells, is especially highlighted. On the basis of the successful results of T-20, the first approved entry inhibitor, the development of effective antiretrovirals that block HIV entry will certainly be further encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Vermeire
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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