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Duan J, Grando C, Liu S, Chernyavsky A, Chen JK, Andersen B, Grando SA. The M3 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Promotes Epidermal Differentiation. J Invest Dermatol 2022; 142:3211-3221.e2. [PMID: 35870560 PMCID: PMC9851810 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2022.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor is predominantly expressed in the basal epidermal layer where it mediates the effects of the autocrine/paracrine cytotransmitter acetylcholine. Patients with the autoimmune blistering disease pemphigus develop autoantibodies to M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and show alterations in keratinocyte adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, suggesting that M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor controls these cellular functions. Chmr3-/- mice display altered epidermal morphology resembling that seen in patients with pemphigus vulgaris. In this study, we characterized the cellular and molecular mechanisms through which M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor controls epidermal structure and function. We used single-cell RNA sequencing to evaluate keratinocyte heterogeneity and identify differentially expressed genes in specific subpopulations of epidermal cells in Chmr3-/- neonatal mice. We found that Chmr3-/- mice feature abnormal epidermal morphology characterized by accumulation of nucleated basal cells, shrinkage of basal keratinocytes, and enlargement of intercellular spaces. These morphologic changes were associated with upregulation of cell proliferation genes and downregulation of genes contributing to epidermal differentiation, extracellular matrix formation, intercellular adhesion, and cell arrangement. These findings provide, to our knowledge, previously unreported insights into how acetylcholine controls epidermal differentiation and lay a groundwork for future translational studies evaluating the therapeutic potential of cholinergic drugs in dermatology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Duan
- Center for Complex Biological Systems, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA,NSF-Simons Center for Multiscale Cell Fate Research, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Charles Grando
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Shuman Liu
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Alex Chernyavsky
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Jefferson K. Chen
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Bogi Andersen
- Center for Complex Biological Systems, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA,NSF-Simons Center for Multiscale Cell Fate Research, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA,Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA,Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Sergei A. Grando
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA,Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA,Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
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Chernyavsky A, Khylynskyi MM, Patel KG, Grando SA. Chronic exposure to the anti-m3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor autoantibody in pemphigus vulgaris contributes to disease pathophysiology. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101687. [PMID: 35143842 PMCID: PMC8897697 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a potentially lethal autoimmune mucocutaneous blistering disease characterized by binding of IgG autoantibodies (AuAbs) to keratinocytes (KCs). In addition to AuAbs against adhesion molecules desmogleins 1 and 3, PV patients also produce an AuAb against the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptor (M3AR) that plays an important role in regulation of vital functions of KCs upon binding endogenous ACh. This anti-M3AR AuAb is pathogenic because its adsorption eliminates the acantholytic activity of PV IgG; however, the molecular mechanism of its action is unclear. In the present study, we sought to elucidate the mode of immunopharmacologic action of the anti-M3AR AuAb in PV. Short-term exposures of cultured KCs to PV IgG or the muscarinic agonist muscarine both induced changes in the expression of keratins 5 and 10, consistent with the inhibition of proliferation and upregulated differentiation and in keeping with the biological function of M3AR. In contrast, long-term incubations induced a keratin expression pattern consistent with upregulated proliferation and decreased differentiation, in keeping with the hyperproliferative state of KCs in PV. This change could result from desensitization of the M3AR, representing the net antagonist-like effect of the AuAb. Therefore, chronic exposure of KCs to the anti-M3AR AuAb interrupts the physiological regulation of KCs by endogenous ACh, contributing to the onset of acantholysis. Since cholinergic agents have already demonstrated antiacantholytic activity in a mouse model of PV and in PV patients, our results have translational significance and can guide future development of therapies for PV patients employing cholinergic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Chernyavsky
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | | | - Krupa G Patel
- Department of Neurology, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester, Michigan, USA
| | - Sergei A Grando
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, USA; Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, USA; Institute for Immunology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, USA.
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Implications of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-Akt (PI3K-Akt) Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 59:354-385. [PMID: 34699027 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02611-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the foremost type of dementia that afflicts considerable morbidity and mortality in aged population. Several transcription molecules, pathways, and molecular mechanisms such as oxidative stress, inflammation, autophagy, and immune system interact in a multifaceted way that disrupt physiological processes (cell growth, differentiation, survival, lipid and energy metabolism, endocytosis) leading to apoptosis, tauopathy, β-amyloidopathy, neuron, and synapse loss, which play an important role in AD pathophysiology. Despite of stupendous advancements in pathogenic mechanisms, treatment of AD is still a nightmare in the field of medicine. There is compelling urgency to find not only symptomatic but effective disease-modifying therapies. Recently, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt are identified as a pathway triggered by diverse stimuli, including insulin, growth factors, cytokines, and cellular stress, that link amyloid-β, neurofibrillary tangles, and brain atrophy. The present review aims to explore and analyze the role of PI3K-Akt pathway in AD and agents which may modulate Akt and have therapeutic prospects in AD. The literature was researched using keywords "PI3K-Akt" and "Alzheimer's disease" from PubMed, Web of Science, Bentham, Science Direct, Springer Nature, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases including books. Articles published from 1992 to 2021 were prioritized and analyzed for their strengths and limitations, and most appropriate ones were selected for the purpose of review. PI3K-Akt pathway regulates various biological processes such as cell proliferation, motility, growth, survival, and metabolic functions, and inhibits many neurotoxic mechanisms. Furthermore, experimental data indicate that PI3K-Akt signaling might be an important therapeutic target in treatment of AD.
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Chen CH, Li YR, Lin SH, Chang HH, Chai WH, Chan PC, Lin CH. Tiotropium/Olodaterol treatment reduces cigarette smoke extract-induced cell death in BEAS-2B bronchial epithelial cells. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2020; 21:74. [PMID: 33129351 PMCID: PMC7603690 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-020-00451-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cigarette smoking is a critical risk factor for the destruction of lung parenchyma or the development of emphysema, which is characteristic of COPD. Disruption of epithelial layer integrity may contribute to lung injury following cigarette smoke extract (CSE) exposure. Tiotropium/olodaterol acts as a bronchodilator for COPD treatment; however, the effect of dual bronchodilators on epithelial cell injury and its underlying mechanism remain unclear. In this study, we evaluated the effect of tiotropium/olodaterol on CSE-mediated cell death and the underlying mechanisms. METHODS Cell viability was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy were evaluated using flow cytometry. Autophagy-related protein, phosphorylated ERK, expression was determined using Western blotting. RESULTS Tiotropium/olodaterol significantly inhibited CSE-induced cell death, mitochondria dysfunction, and autophagy, which had no significant effect on apoptosis or necrosis in BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells. Moreover, tiotropium/olodaterol attenuated CSE-induced upregulation of JNK. CONCLUSIONS CSE induced cell death and caused consistent patterns of autophagy and JNK activation in BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells. Tiotropium/olodaterol treatment protected bronchial epithelial cells from CSE-induced injury and inhibited activation of autophagy and upregulation of JNK phosphorylation. These results indicate that tiotropium/olodaterol may protect epithelial cells from the deleterious effects of CSE exposure, which is associated with the regulation of autophagy and JNK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Hsiung Chen
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, 135 Nanhsiao Street, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yi-Rong Li
- Changhua Christian Hospital, Thoracic Medicine Research center, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Sheng-Hao Lin
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, 135 Nanhsiao Street, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Changhua Christian Hospital, Thoracic Medicine Research center, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Department of Recreation and Holistic Wellness, MingDao University, Changhua, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Hsiu-Hui Chang
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, 135 Nanhsiao Street, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Woei-Horng Chai
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, 135 Nanhsiao Street, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Po-Chiang Chan
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, 135 Nanhsiao Street, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ching-Hsiung Lin
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Changhua Christian Hospital, 135 Nanhsiao Street, Changhua, 50006, Taiwan, Republic of China.
- Department of Recreation and Holistic Wellness, MingDao University, Changhua, Taiwan, Republic of China.
- Institute of Genomics and Bioinformatics, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China.
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Morozova V, Cohen LS, Makki AEH, Shur A, Pilar G, El Idrissi A, Alonso AD. Normal and Pathological Tau Uptake Mediated by M1/M3 Muscarinic Receptors Promotes Opposite Neuronal Changes. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:403. [PMID: 31555098 PMCID: PMC6737038 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The microtubule associated protein tau is mainly found in the cell’s cytosol but recently it was also shown in the extracellular space. In neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), pathological tau spreads from neuron to neuron enhancing neurodegeneration. Here, we show that HEK293 cells and neurons in culture uptake extracellular normal and pathological Tau. Muscarinic receptor antagonists atropine and pirenzepine block 80% this uptake. CHO cells do not express these receptors therefore cannot uptake tau, unless transfected with M1 and/or M3 receptor. These results strongly suggest that muscarinic receptors mediate this process. Uptake of normal tau in neurons enhances neuronal process formation but a pseudophosphorylated form of tau (pathological human tau, PH-Tau) disrupts them and accumulates in the somatodendritic compartment. AD hyperphosphorylated tau (AD P-Tau) has similar effects as PH-Tau on cultured neurons. Addition of either PH-Tau or AD P-tau to neuronal cultures induced microglial activation. In conclusion, uptake of extracellular tau is mediated by muscarinic receptors with opposite effects: normal tau stabilizes neurites; whereas pathological tau disrupts this process leading to neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoriya Morozova
- Department of Biology and Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, United States.,Biology Program, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, United States
| | - Leah S Cohen
- Department of Biology and Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, United States
| | - Ali El-Hadi Makki
- Department of Biology and Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, United States
| | - Alison Shur
- Department of Biology and Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, United States.,Biology Program, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, United States
| | - Guillermo Pilar
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Abdeslem El Idrissi
- Department of Biology and Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, United States.,Biology Program, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, United States
| | - Alejandra D Alonso
- Department of Biology and Center for Developmental Neuroscience, College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, United States.,Biology Program, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, United States
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M1 muscarinic receptor activation mediates cell death in M1-HEK293 cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72011. [PMID: 24023725 PMCID: PMC3759376 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
HEK293 cells have been used extensively to generate stable cell lines to study G protein-coupled receptors, such as muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). The activation of M1 mAChRs in various cell types in vitro has been shown to be protective. To further investigate M1 mAChR-mediated cell survival, we generated stable HEK293 cell-lines expressing the human M1 mAChR. M1 mAChRs were efficiently expressed at the cell surface and efficiently internalised within 1 h by carbachol. Carbachol also induced early signalling cascades similar to previous reports. Thus, ectopically expressed M1 receptors behaved in a similar fashion to the native receptor over short time periods of analysis. However, substantial cell death was observed in HEK293-M1 cells within 24 h after carbachol application. Death was only observed in HEK cells expressing M1 receptors and fully blocked by M1 antagonists. M1 mAChR-stimulation mediated prolonged activation of the MEK-ERK pathway and resulted in prolonged induction of the transcription factor EGR-1 (>24 h). Blockade of ERK signalling with U0126 did not reduce M1 mAChR-mediated cell-death significantly but inhibited the acute induction of EGR-1. We investigated the time-course of cell death using time-lapse microscopy and xCELLigence technology. Both revealed the M1 mAChR cytotoxicity occurs within several hours of M1 activation. The xCELLigence assay also confirmed that the ERK pathway was not involved in cell-death. Interestingly, the MEK blocker did reduce carbachol-mediated cleaved caspase 3 expression in HEK293-M1 cells. The HEK293 cell line is a widely used pharmacological tool for studying G-protein coupled receptors, including mAChRs. Our results highlight the importance of investigating the longer term fate of these cells in short term signalling studies. Identifying how and why activation of the M1 mAChR signals apoptosis in these cells may lead to a better understanding of how mAChRs regulate cell-fate decisions.
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Borroto-Escuela DO, Correia PA, Romero-Fernandez W, Narvaez M, Fuxe K, Ciruela F, Garriga P. Muscarinic receptor family interacting proteins: Role in receptor function. J Neurosci Methods 2011; 195:161-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2010] [Revised: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 11/24/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Sabbatini ME, Bi Y, Ji B, Ernst SA, Williams JA. CCK activates RhoA and Rac1 differentially through Galpha13 and Galphaq in mouse pancreatic acini. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2009; 298:C592-601. [PMID: 19940064 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00448.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cholecystokinin (CCK) has been shown to activate RhoA and Rac1, as well as reorganize the actin cytoskeleton and, thereby, modify acinar morphology and amylase secretion in mouse pancreatic acini. The aim of the present study was to determine which heterotrimeric G proteins activate RhoA and Rac1 upon CCK stimulation. Galpha(13), but not Galpha(12), was identified in mouse pancreatic acini by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Using specific assays for RhoA and Rac1 activation, we showed that only active Galpha(13) activated RhoA. By contrast, active Galpha(13) and Galpha(q), but not Galpha(s), slightly increased GTP-bound Rac1 levels. A greater increase in Rac1 activation was observed when active Galpha(13) and active Galpha(q) were coexpressed. Galpha(i) was not required for CCK-induced RhoA or Rac1 activation. The regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) domain of p115-Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor (p115-RGS), a specific inhibitor of Galpha(12/13)-mediated signaling, abolished CCK-stimulated RhoA activation. By contrast, both RGS-2, an inhibitor of Galpha(q), and p115-RGS abolished CCK-induced Rac1 activation, which was PLC pathway-independent. Active Galpha(q) and Galpha(13), but not Galpha(s), induced morphological changes and actin redistribution similar to 1 nM CCK. CCK-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization was inhibited by RGS-2, but not by p115-RGS, whereas CCK-induced amylase secretion was blocked by both inhibitors. Together, these findings indicate that, in mouse pancreatic acini, Galpha(13) links CCK stimulation to the activation of RhoA, whereas both Galpha(13) and Galpha(q) link CCK stimulation to the activation of Rac1. CCK-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization is mainly mediated by Galpha(q). By contrast, Galpha(13) and Galpha(q) signaling are required for CCK-induced amylase secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria E Sabbatini
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
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Resende RR, Adhikari A. Cholinergic receptor pathways involved in apoptosis, cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation. Cell Commun Signal 2009; 7:20. [PMID: 19712465 PMCID: PMC2744676 DOI: 10.1186/1478-811x-7-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetylcholine (ACh) has been shown to modulate neuronal differentiation during early development. Both muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) regulate a wide variety of physiological responses, including apoptosis, cellular proliferation and neuronal differentiation. However, the intracellular mechanisms underlying these effects of AChR signaling are not fully understood. It is known that activation of AChRs increase cellular proliferation and neurogenesis and that regulation of intracellular calcium through AChRs may underlie the many functions of ACh. Intriguingly, activation of diverse signaling molecules such as Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt, protein kinase C and c-Src is modulated by AChRs. Here we discuss the roles of ACh in neuronal differentiation, cell proliferation and apoptosis. We also discuss the pathways involved in these processes, as well as the effects of novel endogenous AChRs agonists and strategies to enhance neuronal-differentiation of stem and neural progenitor cells. Further understanding of the intracellular mechanisms underlying AChR signaling may provide insights for novel therapeutic strategies, as abnormal AChR activity is present in many diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo R Resende
- Department of Physics, Institute of Exact Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil.
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Yanamadala V, Negoro H, Denker BM. Heterotrimeric G proteins and apoptosis: intersecting signaling pathways leading to context dependent phenotypes. Curr Mol Med 2009; 9:527-45. [PMID: 19601805 PMCID: PMC2822437 DOI: 10.2174/156652409788488784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis, a programmed cell death mechanism, is a fundamental process during the normal development and somatic maintenance of all multicellular organisms and thus is highly conserved and tightly regulated through numerous signaling pathways. Apoptosis is of particular clinical importance as its dysregulation contributes significantly to numerous human diseases, primarily through changes in the expression and activation of key apoptotic regulators. Each of the four families of heterotrimeric G proteins (G(s), G(i/o), G(q/11) and G(12/13)) has been implicated in numerous cellular signaling processes, including proliferation, transformation, migration, differentiation, and apoptosis. Heterotrimeric G protein signaling is an important but not widely studied mechanism regulating apoptosis. G protein Signaling and Apoptosis broadly cover two large bodies of literature and share numerous signaling pathways. Examination of the intersection between these two areas is the focus of this review. Several studies have implicated signaling through each of the four heterotrimeric G protein families to regulate apoptosis within numerous disease contexts, but the mechanism(s) are not well defined. Each G protein family has been shown to stimulate and/or inhibit apoptosis in a context-dependent fashion through regulating numerous downstream effectors including the Bcl-2 family, NF-kappaB, PI3 Kinase, MAP Kinases, and small GTPases. These cell-type specific and G protein coupled receptor dependent effects have led to a complex body of literature of G protein regulation of apoptosis. Here, we review the literature and summarize apoptotic signaling through each of the four heterotrimeric G protein families (and the relevant G protein coupled receptors), and discuss limitations and future directions for research on regulating apoptosis through G protein coupled mechanisms. Continued investigation in this field is essential for the identification of important targets for pharmacological intervention in numerous diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Yanamadala
- Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Hideyuki Negoro
- Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bradley M. Denker
- Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Activation of muscarinic M-3 receptor may decrease glucose uptake and lipolysis in adipose tissue of rats. Neurosci Lett 2009; 451:57-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2008] [Revised: 12/15/2008] [Accepted: 12/17/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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