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Jiang Y, Perez-Moreno M. Translational frontiers: insight from lymphatics in skin regeneration. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1347558. [PMID: 38487264 PMCID: PMC10937408 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1347558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The remarkable regenerative ability of the skin, governed by complex molecular mechanisms, offers profound insights into the skin repair processes and the pathogenesis of various dermatological conditions. This understanding, derived from studies in human skin and various model systems, has not only deepened our knowledge of skin regeneration but also facilitated the development of skin substitutes in clinical practice. Recent research highlights the crucial role of lymphatic vessels in skin regeneration. Traditionally associated with fluid dynamics and immune modulation, these vessels are now recognized for interacting with skin stem cells and coordinating regeneration. This Mini Review provides an overview of recent advancements in basic and translational research related to skin regeneration, focusing on the dynamic interplay between lymphatic vessels and skin biology. Key highlights include the critical role of stem cell-lymphatic vessel crosstalk in orchestrating skin regeneration, emerging translational approaches, and their implications for skin diseases. Additionally, the review identifies research gaps and proposes potential future directions, underscoring the significance of this rapidly evolving research arena.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mirna Perez-Moreno
- Section for Cell Biology and Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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2
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Kozuki S, Kabata M, Sakurai S, Iwaisako K, Nishimura T, Toi M, Yamamoto T, Toyoshima F. Periportal hepatocyte proliferation at midgestation governs maternal glucose homeostasis in mice. Commun Biol 2023; 6:1226. [PMID: 38049528 PMCID: PMC10695921 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05614-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The maternal liver is challenged by metabolic demands throughout pregnancy. However, hepatocyte dynamics and their physiological significance in pregnancy remain unclear. Here, we show in mice that hepatocyte proliferation is spatiotemporally regulated in each liver lobular zone during pregnancy, with transient proliferation of periportal and pericentral hepatocytes during mid and late gestation, respectively. Using adeno-associated virus (AAV)-8-mediated expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p21 in hepatocytes, we show that inhibition of hepatocyte proliferation during mid, but not late, gestation impairs liver growth. Transcriptionally, genes involved in glucose/glycogen metabolism are downregulated in late pregnancy when midgestational hepatocyte proliferation is attenuated. In addition, hepatic glycogen storage is abolished, with concomitant elevated blood glucose concentrations, glucose intolerance, placental glycogen deposition, and fetal overgrowth. Laser capture microdissection and RNA-seq analysis of each liver lobular zone show zone-specific changes in the transcriptome during pregnancy and identify genes that are periportally expressed at midgestation, including the hyaluronan-mediated motility receptor (Hmmr). Knockdown of Hmmr in hepatocytes by AAV8-shHmmr suppresses periportal hepatocyte proliferation at midgestation and induces impaired hepatic glycogen storage, glucose intolerance, placental glycogen deposition and fetal overgrowth. Our results suggest that periportal hepatocyte proliferation during midgestation is critical for maternal glycogen metabolism and fetal size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Kozuki
- Department of Biosystems Science, Institute for Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Department of Mammalian and Regulatory Networks, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Mio Kabata
- Department of Life Science Frontiers, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Satoko Sakurai
- Department of Life Science Frontiers, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Keiko Iwaisako
- Department of Medical Life Systems, Faculty of Life and Medical Sciences, Doshisha University, Kyoto, 610-0394, Japan
- Department of Target Therapy Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Tomomi Nishimura
- Department of Breast Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Masakazu Toi
- Department of Breast Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Takuya Yamamoto
- Department of Life Science Frontiers, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (ASHBi), Kyoto University, Yoshida-Konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
- Medical Risk Avoidance based on iPS Cells Team, RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project (AIP), Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Fumiko Toyoshima
- Department of Biosystems Science, Institute for Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan.
- Department of Mammalian and Regulatory Networks, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan.
- Department of Homeostatic Medicine, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Yushima Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8510, Japan.
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3
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Kamiya S, Ikegami I, Yanagi M, Takaki H, Kamekura R, Sato T, Kobayashi K, Kamiya T, Kamada Y, Abe T, Inoue KI, Hida T, Uhara H, Ichimiya S. Functional Interplay between IL-9 and Peptide YY Contributes to Chronic Skin Inflammation. J Invest Dermatol 2022; 142:3222-3231.e5. [PMID: 35850207 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2022.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Complex interactions between keratinocytes and various cell types, such as inflammatory cells and stromal cells, contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory skin lesions. In proinflammatory cytokine‒mediated disease settings, IL-9 plays a pathological role in inflammatory dermatitis. However, IL-9‒related mechanisms remain incompletely understood. In this study, we established tamoxifen-induced keratinocyte-specific IL-9RA-deficient mice (K14CRE/ERTIl9raΔ/Δ mice) to examine the role of IL-9 in multicellular interactions under chronic skin inflammatory conditions. Studies using an imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like model showed that K14CRE/ERTIl9raΔ/Δ mice exhibited a significantly reduced severity of dermatitis and mast cell infiltration compared with control K14WTIl9rafl/fl mice. Transcriptome analyses of psoriasis-like lesions showed that the level of peptide Y-Y (Pyy), a member of the neuropeptide Y family, was markedly downregulated in K14CRE/ERTIl9raΔ/Δ epidermis. Pyy blockade suppressed epidermal thickening and mast cell numbers in imiquimod-treated wild-type mice. Together with in vitro studies indicating that Pyy induced IL-9 production and chemotactic activity in bone marrow‒derived mast cells, these findings suggest that Pyy-mediated interplay between keratinocytes and mast cells contributes to psoriasiform inflammation. Further investigation focusing on the IL-9‒Pyy axis may provide valuable information for the development of new treatment modalities for inflammatory dermatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiori Kamiya
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan; Department of Dermatology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ippei Ikegami
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yanagi
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hiromi Takaki
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ryuta Kamekura
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Taiki Sato
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Keiju Kobayashi
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan; Department of Dermatology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takafumi Kamiya
- Department of Dermatology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yuka Kamada
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takaya Abe
- Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Inoue
- Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan
| | - Tokimasa Hida
- Department of Dermatology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hisashi Uhara
- Department of Dermatology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shingo Ichimiya
- Department of Human Immunology, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan.
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4
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Barrasa-Ramos S, Dessalles CA, Hautefeuille M, Barakat AI. Mechanical regulation of the early stages of angiogenesis. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220360. [PMID: 36475392 PMCID: PMC9727679 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Favouring or thwarting the development of a vascular network is essential in fields as diverse as oncology, cardiovascular disease or tissue engineering. As a result, understanding and controlling angiogenesis has become a major scientific challenge. Mechanical factors play a fundamental role in angiogenesis and can potentially be exploited for optimizing the architecture of the resulting vascular network. Largely focusing on in vitro systems but also supported by some in vivo evidence, the aim of this Highlight Review is dual. First, we describe the current knowledge with particular focus on the effects of fluid and solid mechanical stimuli on the early stages of the angiogenic process, most notably the destabilization of existing vessels and the initiation and elongation of new vessels. Second, we explore inherent difficulties in the field and propose future perspectives on the use of in vitro and physics-based modelling to overcome these difficulties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Barrasa-Ramos
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Claire A. Dessalles
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Mathieu Hautefeuille
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement (UMR7622), Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France,Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CDMX, Mexico
| | - Abdul I. Barakat
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
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5
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Development of an in vivo cleavable donor plasmid for targeted transgene integration by CRISPR-Cas9 and CRISPR-Cas12a. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17775. [PMID: 36272994 PMCID: PMC9588054 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22639-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The CRISPR-Cas system is widely used for genome editing of cultured cells and organisms. The discovery of a new single RNA-guided endonuclease, CRISPR-Cas12a, in addition to the conventional CRISPR-Cas9 has broadened the number of editable target sites on the genome. Here, we developed an in vivo cleavable donor plasmid for precise targeted knock-in of external DNA by both Cas9 and Cas12a. This plasmid, named pCriMGET_9-12a (plasmid of synthetic CRISPR-coded RNA target sequence-equipped donor plasmid-mediated gene targeting via Cas9 and Cas12a), comprises the protospacer-adjacent motif sequences of Cas9 and Cas12a at the side of an off-target free synthetic CRISPR-coded RNA target sequence and a multiple cloning site for donor cassette insertion. pCriMGET_9-12a generates a linearized donor cassette in vivo by both CRISPR-Cas9 and CRISPR-Cas12a, which resulted in increased knock-in efficiency in culture cells. This method also achieved > 25% targeted knock-in of long external DNA (> 4 kb) in mice by both CRISPR-Cas9 and CRISPR-Cas12a. The pCriMGET_9-12a system expands the genomic target space for transgene knock-in and provides a versatile, low-cost, and high-performance CRISPR genome editing tool.
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6
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Ghuwalewala S, Lee SA, Jiang K, Baidya J, Chovatiya G, Kaur P, Shalloway D, Tumbar T. Binary organization of epidermal basal domains highlights robustness to environmental exposure. EMBO J 2022; 41:e110488. [PMID: 35949182 PMCID: PMC9475544 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021110488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Adulte interfollicular epidermis (IFE) renewal is likely orchestrated by physiological demands of its complex tissue architecture comprising spatial and cellular heterogeneity. Mouse tail and back skin display two kinds of basal IFE spatial domains that regenerate at different rates. Here, we elucidate the molecular and cellular states of basal IFE domains by marker expression and single-cell transcriptomics in mouse and human skin. We uncover two paths of basal cell differentiation that in part reflect the IFE spatial domain organization. We unravel previously unrecognized similarities between mouse tail IFE basal domains defined as scales and interscales versus human rete ridges and inter-ridges, respectively. Furthermore, our basal IFE transcriptomics and gene targeting in mice provide evidence supporting a physiological role of IFE domains in adaptation to differential UV exposure. We identify Sox6 as a novel UV-induced and interscale/inter-ridge preferred basal IFE-domain transcription factor, important for IFE proliferation and survival. The spatial, cellular, and molecular organization of IFE basal domains underscores skin adaptation to environmental exposure and its unusual robustness in adult homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Seon A Lee
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Kevin Jiang
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Joydeep Baidya
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Gopal Chovatiya
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Pritinder Kaur
- Curtin Medical School/Curtin Health Innovation Research InstituteCurtin UniversityPerthWAAustralia
| | - David Shalloway
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Tudorita Tumbar
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
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7
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Abstract
The skin forms a crucial, dynamic barrier between an animal and the external world. In mammals, three stem cell populations possess robust regenerative potential to maintain and repair the body's protective surface: epidermal stem cells, which maintain the stratified epidermis; hair follicle stem cells, which power the cyclic growth of the hair follicle; and melanocyte stem cells, which regenerate pigment-producing melanocytes to color the skin and hair. These stem cells reside in complex microenvironments ("niches") comprising diverse cellular repertoires that enable stem cells to rejuvenate tissues during homeostasis and regenerate them upon injury. Beyond their niches, skin stem cells can also sense and respond to fluctuations in organismal health or changes outside the body. Here, we review these diverse cellular interactions and highlight how far-reaching signals can be transmitted at the local level to enable skin stem cells to tailor their actions to suit the particular occasion and optimize fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Chieh Hsu
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Elaine Fuchs
- Robin Chemers Neustein Laboratory of Mammalian Cell Biology and Development, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10065, USA
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8
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Vasculature atrophy causes a stiffened microenvironment that augments epidermal stem cell differentiation in aged skin. NATURE AGING 2022; 2:592-600. [PMID: 37117774 DOI: 10.1038/s43587-022-00244-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Stem cell loss causes tissue deterioration associated with aging. The accumulation of genomic and oxidative stress-induced DNA damage is an intrinsic cue for stem cell loss1,2; however, whether there is an external microenvironmental cue that triggers stem cell loss remains unclear. Here we report that the involution of skin vasculature causes dermal stiffening that augments the differentiation and hemidesmosome fragility of interfollicular epidermal stem cells (IFESCs) in aged mouse skin. Aging-related IFESC dysregulation occurs in plantar and tail skin, and is correlated with prolonged calcium influx, which is contributed by the mechanoresponsive ion channel Piezo1 (ref. 3). Epidermal deletion of Piezo1 ameliorated IFESC dysregulation in aged skin, whereas Piezo1 activation augmented IFESC differentiation and hemidesmosome fragility in young mice. The dermis stiffened with age, which was accompanied by dermal vasculature atrophy. Conversely, induction of the dermal vasculature softened the dermis and ameliorated IFESC dysregulation in aged skin. Single-cell RNA sequencing of dermal fibroblasts identified an aging-associated anti-angiogenetic secretory molecule, pentraxin 3 (ref. 4), which caused dermal sclerotization and IFESC dysregulation in aged skin. Our findings show that the vasculature softens the microenvironment for stem cell maintenance and provide a potential mechanobiology-based therapeutic strategy against skin disorders in aging.
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9
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Cockburn K, Annusver K, Gonzalez DG, Ganesan S, May DP, Mesa KR, Kawaguchi K, Kasper M, Greco V. Gradual differentiation uncoupled from cell cycle exit generates heterogeneity in the epidermal stem cell layer. Nat Cell Biol 2022; 24:1692-1700. [PMID: 36357619 PMCID: PMC9729105 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-022-01021-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Highly regenerative tissues continuously produce terminally differentiated cells to replace those that are lost. How they orchestrate the complex transition from undifferentiated stem cells towards post-mitotic, molecularly distinct and often spatially segregated differentiated populations is not well understood. In the adult skin epidermis, the stem cell compartment contains molecularly heterogeneous subpopulations1-4 whose relationship to the complete trajectory of differentiation remains unknown. Here we show that differentiation, from commitment to exit from the stem cell layer, is a multi-day process wherein cells transit through a continuum of transcriptional changes with upregulation of differentiation genes preceding downregulation of typical stemness genes. Differentiation-committed cells remain capable of dividing to produce daughter cells fated to further differentiate, demonstrating that differentiation is uncoupled from cell cycle exit. These cell divisions are not required as part of an obligate transit-amplifying programme but help to buffer the differentiating cell pool during heightened demand. Thus, instead of distinct contributions from multiple progenitors, a continuous gradual differentiation process fuels homeostatic epidermal turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Cockburn
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Present Address: Department of Biochemistry and Rosalind & Morris Goodman Cancer Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec Canada
| | - Karl Annusver
- grid.4714.60000 0004 1937 0626Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - David G. Gonzalez
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
| | - Smirthy Ganesan
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
| | - Dennis P. May
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
| | - Kailin R. Mesa
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
| | - Kyogo Kawaguchi
- grid.508743.dNonequilibrium Physics of Living Matter RIKEN Habuki Research Team, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, Japan ,grid.7597.c0000000094465255RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, Kobe, Japan ,grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XUniversal Biology Institute, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Maria Kasper
- grid.4714.60000 0004 1937 0626Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Valentina Greco
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA ,grid.47100.320000000419368710Departments of Cell Biology and Dermatology, Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale Cancer Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
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10
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Nguyen TM, Aragona M. Regulation of tissue architecture and stem cell dynamics to sustain homeostasis and repair in the skin epidermis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 130:79-89. [PMID: 34563461 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Stratified epithelia are made up of several layers of cells, which act as a protective barrier for the organ they cover. To ensure their shielding effect, epithelia are naturally able to cope with constant environmental insults. This ability is enabled by their morphology and architecture, as well as the continuous turnover of stem and progenitor cells that constitute their building blocks. Stem cell fate decisions and dynamics are fundamental key biological processes that allow epithelia to exert their functions. By focusing on the skin epidermis, this review discusses how tissue architecture is generated during development, maintained through adult life, and re-established during regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tram Mai Nguyen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Stem Cell Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mariaceleste Aragona
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Stem Cell Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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