1
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Chen JS, Igarashi MG, Ren L, Hanna SM, Turner LA, McDonald NA, Beckley JR, Willet AH, Gould KL. The core spindle pole body scaffold Ppc89 links the pericentrin orthologue Pcp1 to the fission yeast spindle pole body via an evolutionarily conserved interface. Mol Biol Cell 2024; 35:ar112. [PMID: 38985524 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e24-05-0220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Centrosomes and spindle pole bodies (SPBs) are important for mitotic spindle formation and serve as cellular signaling platforms. Although centrosomes and SPBs differ in morphology, many mechanistic insights into centrosome function have been gleaned from SPB studies. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the α-helical protein Ppc89, identified based on its interaction with the septation initiation network scaffold Sid4, comprises the SPB core. High-resolution imaging has suggested that SPB proteins assemble on the Ppc89 core during SPB duplication, but such interactions are undefined. Here, we define a connection between Ppc89 and the essential pericentrin Pcp1. Specifically, we found that a predicted third helix within Ppc89 binds the Pcp1 pericentrin-AKAP450 centrosomal targeting (PACT) domain complexed with calmodulin. Ppc89 helix 3 contains similarity to present in the N-terminus of Cep57 (PINC) motifs found in the centrosomal proteins fly SAS-6 and human Cep57 and also to the S. cerevisiae SPB protein Spc42. These motifs bind pericentrin-calmodulin complexes and AlphaFold2 models suggest a homologous complex assembles in all four organisms. Mutational analysis of the S. pombe complex supports the importance of Ppc89-Pcp1 binding interface in vivo. Our studies provide insight into the core architecture of the S. pombe SPB and suggest an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of scaffolding pericentrin-calmodulin complexes for mitotic spindle formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Song Chen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Maya G Igarashi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Liping Ren
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Sarah M Hanna
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Lesley A Turner
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Nathan A McDonald
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Janel R Beckley
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Alaina H Willet
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
| | - Kathleen L Gould
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240
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2
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Sulimenko V, Dráberová E, Dráber P. γ-Tubulin in microtubule nucleation and beyond. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:880761. [PMID: 36158181 PMCID: PMC9503634 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.880761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubules composed of αβ-tubulin dimers are dynamic cytoskeletal polymers that play key roles in essential cellular processes such as cell division, organelle positioning, intracellular transport, and cell migration. γ-Tubulin is a highly conserved member of the tubulin family that is required for microtubule nucleation. γ-Tubulin, together with its associated proteins, forms the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), that templates microtubules. Here we review recent advances in the structure of γ-TuRC, its activation, and centrosomal recruitment. This provides new mechanistic insights into the molecular mechanism of microtubule nucleation. Accumulating data suggest that γ-tubulin also has other, less well understood functions. We discuss emerging evidence that γ-tubulin can form oligomers and filaments, has specific nuclear functions, and might be involved in centrosomal cross-talk between microtubules and microfilaments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pavel Dráber
- *Correspondence: Vadym Sulimenko, ; Pavel Dráber,
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3
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Wang GF, Dong Q, Bai Y, Gu J, Tao Q, Yue J, Zhou R, Niu X, Zhu L, Song C, Zheng T, Wang D, Jin Y, Liu H, Cao C, Liu X. c-Abl kinase-mediated phosphorylation of γ-tubulin promotes γ-tubulin ring complexes assembly and microtubule nucleation. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101778. [PMID: 35231444 PMCID: PMC8980629 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytoskeletal microtubules (MTs) are nucleated from γ-tubulin ring complexes (γTuRCs) located at MT organizing centers (MTOCs), such as the centrosome. However, the exact regulatory mechanism of γTuRC assembly is not fully understood. Here, we showed that the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase c-Abl was associated with and phosphorylated γ-tubulin, the essential component of the γTuRC, mainly on the Y443 residue by in vivo (immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation) or in vitro (surface plasmon resonance) detection. We further demonstrated that phosphorylation deficiency significantly impaired γTuRC assembly, centrosome construction, and MT nucleation. c-Abl/Arg deletion and γ-tubulin Y443F mutation resulted in an abnormal morphology and compromised spindle function during mitosis, eventually causing uneven chromosome segregation. Our findings reveal that γTuRC assembly and nucleation function are regulated by Abl kinase-mediated γ-tubulin phosphorylation, revealing a fundamental mechanism that contributes to the maintenance of MT function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Fei Wang
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Qincai Dong
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Bai
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Jing Gu
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Qingping Tao
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Junjie Yue
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Rui Zhou
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Xiayang Niu
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Lin Zhu
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Caiwei Song
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Tong Zheng
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Di Wang
- Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Yanwen Jin
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Hainan Liu
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China.
| | - Cheng Cao
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China.
| | - Xuan Liu
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China.
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4
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Romeiro Motta M, Zhao X, Pastuglia M, Belcram K, Roodbarkelari F, Komaki M, Harashima H, Komaki S, Kumar M, Bulankova P, Heese M, Riha K, Bouchez D, Schnittger A. B1-type cyclins control microtubule organization during cell division in Arabidopsis. EMBO Rep 2022; 23:e53995. [PMID: 34882930 PMCID: PMC8728612 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202153995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Flowering plants contain a large number of cyclin families, each containing multiple members, most of which have not been characterized to date. Here, we analyzed the role of the B1 subclass of mitotic cyclins in cell cycle control during Arabidopsis development. While we reveal CYCB1;5 to be a pseudogene, the remaining four members were found to be expressed in dividing cells. Mutant analyses showed a complex pattern of overlapping, development-specific requirements of B1-type cyclins with CYCB1;2 playing a central role. The double mutant cycb1;1 cycb1;2 is severely compromised in growth, yet viable beyond the seedling stage, hence representing a unique opportunity to study the function of B1-type cyclin activity at the organismic level. Immunolocalization of microtubules in cycb1;1 cycb1;2 and treating mutants with the microtubule drug oryzalin revealed a key role of B1-type cyclins in orchestrating mitotic microtubule networks. Subsequently, we identified the GAMMA-TUBULIN COMPLEX PROTEIN 3-INTERACTING PROTEIN 1 (GIP1/MOZART) as an in vitro substrate of B1-type cyclin complexes and further genetic analyses support a potential role in the regulation of GIP1 by CYCB1s.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xin’Ai Zhao
- Department of Developmental BiologyUniversity of HamburgHamburgGermany
- Centre for Organismal Studies HeidelbergUniversity of HeidelbergHeidelbergGermany
| | - Martine Pastuglia
- Institute Jean‐Pierre BourginINRAEAgroParisTechUniversité Paris‐SaclayVersaillesFrance
| | - Katia Belcram
- Institute Jean‐Pierre BourginINRAEAgroParisTechUniversité Paris‐SaclayVersaillesFrance
| | | | - Maki Komaki
- Department of Developmental BiologyUniversity of HamburgHamburgGermany
| | - Hirofumi Harashima
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource ScienceYokohamaJapan
- Present address:
Solution Research LaboratoryAS ONE CorporationKawasakiJapan
| | - Shinichiro Komaki
- Department of Developmental BiologyUniversity of HamburgHamburgGermany
- Nara Institute of Science and TechnologyNaraJapan
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Amity Institute of Genome EngineeringAmity University Uttar PradeshSector 125NoidaIndia
| | | | - Maren Heese
- Department of Developmental BiologyUniversity of HamburgHamburgGermany
| | - Karel Riha
- Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk UniversityBrnoCzech Republic
| | - David Bouchez
- Institute Jean‐Pierre BourginINRAEAgroParisTechUniversité Paris‐SaclayVersaillesFrance
| | - Arp Schnittger
- Department of Developmental BiologyUniversity of HamburgHamburgGermany
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5
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Gao X, Herrero S, Wernet V, Erhardt S, Valerius O, Braus GH, Fischer R. The role of Aspergillus nidulans polo-like kinase PlkA in microtubule-organizing center control. J Cell Sci 2021; 134:271867. [PMID: 34328180 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.256537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrosomes are important microtubule-organizing centers (MTOC) in animal cells. In addition, non-centrosomal MTOCs (ncMTOCs) have been described in many cell types. The functional analogs of centrosomes in fungi are the spindle pole bodies (SPBs). In Aspergillus nidulans, additional MTOCs have been discovered at septa (sMTOC). Although the core components are conserved in both MTOCs, their composition and organization are different and dynamic. Here, we show that the polo-like kinase PlkA binds the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) receptor protein ApsB and contributes to targeting ApsB to both MTOCs. PlkA coordinates the activities of the SPB outer plaque and the sMTOC. PlkA kinase activity was required for astral MT formation involving ApsB recruitment. PlkA also interacted with the γ-TuRC inner plaque receptor protein PcpA. Mitosis was delayed without PlkA, and the PlkA protein was required for proper mitotic spindle morphology, although this function was independent of its catalytic activity. Our results suggest that the polo-like kinase is a regulator of MTOC activities and acts as a scaffolding unit through interaction with γ-TuRC receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolei Gao
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Dept. of Microbiology, Fritz-Haber-Weg 4, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Saturnino Herrero
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Dept. of Microbiology, Fritz-Haber-Weg 4, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Valentin Wernet
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Dept. of Microbiology, Fritz-Haber-Weg 4, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Sylvia Erhardt
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Zoological Institute, Fritz-Haber-Weg 4, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Oliver Valerius
- University of Göttingen, Dept. of Microbiology, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Gerhard H Braus
- University of Göttingen, Dept. of Microbiology, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Reinhard Fischer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Dept. of Microbiology, Fritz-Haber-Weg 4, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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6
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Abstract
As one of four filament types, microtubules are a core component of the cytoskeleton and are essential for cell function. Yet how microtubules are nucleated from their building blocks, the αβ-tubulin heterodimer, has remained a fundamental open question since the discovery of tubulin 50 years ago. Recent structural studies have shed light on how γ-tubulin and the γ-tubulin complex proteins (GCPs) GCP2 to GCP6 form the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC). In parallel, functional and single-molecule studies have informed on how the γ-TuRC nucleates microtubules in real time, how this process is regulated in the cell and how it compares to other modes of nucleation. Another recent surprise has been the identification of a second essential nucleation factor, which turns out to be the well-characterized microtubule polymerase XMAP215 (also known as CKAP5, a homolog of chTOG, Stu2 and Alp14). This discovery helps to explain why the observed nucleation activity of the γ-TuRC in vitro is relatively low. Taken together, research in recent years has afforded important insight into how microtubules are made in the cell and provides a basis for an exciting era in the cytoskeleton field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Thawani
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Sabine Petry
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
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7
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Brilot AF, Lyon AS, Zelter A, Viswanath S, Maxwell A, MacCoss MJ, Muller EG, Sali A, Davis TN, Agard DA. CM1-driven assembly and activation of yeast γ-tubulin small complex underlies microtubule nucleation. eLife 2021; 10:e65168. [PMID: 33949948 PMCID: PMC8099430 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubule (MT) nucleation is regulated by the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC), conserved from yeast to humans. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, γTuRC is composed of seven identical γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC) sub-assemblies, which associate helically to template MT growth. γTuRC assembly provides a key point of regulation for the MT cytoskeleton. Here, we combine crosslinking mass spectrometry, X-ray crystallography, and cryo-EM structures of both monomeric and dimeric γTuSCs, and open and closed helical γTuRC assemblies in complex with Spc110p to elucidate the mechanisms of γTuRC assembly. γTuRC assembly is substantially aided by the evolutionarily conserved CM1 motif in Spc110p spanning a pair of adjacent γTuSCs. By providing the highest resolution and most complete views of any γTuSC assembly, our structures allow phosphorylation sites to be mapped, surprisingly suggesting that they are mostly inhibitory. A comparison of our structures with the CM1 binding site in the human γTuRC structure at the interface between GCP2 and GCP6 allows for the interpretation of significant structural changes arising from CM1 helix binding to metazoan γTuRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel F Brilot
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Andrew S Lyon
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Alex Zelter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Shruthi Viswanath
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California at San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Alison Maxwell
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Michael J MacCoss
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Eric G Muller
- Department of Biochemistry, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California at San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Trisha N Davis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - David A Agard
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
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8
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Rüthnick D, Vitale J, Neuner A, Schiebel E. The N-terminus of Sfi1 and yeast centrin Cdc31 provide the assembly site for a new spindle pole body. J Cell Biol 2021; 220:211743. [PMID: 33523111 PMCID: PMC7852455 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202004196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The spindle pole body (SPB) provides microtubule-organizing functions in yeast and duplicates exactly once per cell cycle. The first step in SPB duplication is the half-bridge to bridge conversion via the antiparallel dimerization of the centrin (Cdc31)-binding protein Sfi1 in anaphase. The bridge, which is anchored to the old SPB on the proximal end, exposes free Sfi1 N-termini (N-Sfi1) at its distal end. These free N-Sfi1 promote in G1 the assembly of the daughter SPB (dSPB) in a yet unclear manner. This study shows that N-Sfi1 including the first three Cdc31 binding sites interacts with the SPB components Spc29 and Spc42, triggering the assembly of the dSPB. Cdc31 binding to N-Sfi1 promotes Spc29 recruitment and is essential for satellite formation. Furthermore, phosphorylation of N-Sfi1 has an inhibitory effect and delays dSPB biogenesis until G1. Taking these data together, we provide an understanding of the initial steps in SPB assembly and describe a new function of Cdc31 in the recruitment of dSPB components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Rüthnick
- Center for Molecular Biology, University of Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center-Center for Molecular Biology Alliance, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jlenia Vitale
- Center for Molecular Biology, University of Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center-Center for Molecular Biology Alliance, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Annett Neuner
- Center for Molecular Biology, University of Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center-Center for Molecular Biology Alliance, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Elmar Schiebel
- Center for Molecular Biology, University of Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center-Center for Molecular Biology Alliance, Heidelberg, Germany
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9
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Geymonat M, Peng Q, Guo Z, Yu Z, Unruh JR, Jaspersen SL, Segal M. Orderly assembly underpinning built-in asymmetry in the yeast centrosome duplication cycle requires cyclin-dependent kinase. eLife 2020; 9:59222. [PMID: 32851976 PMCID: PMC7470843 DOI: 10.7554/elife.59222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Asymmetric astral microtubule organization drives the polarized orientation of the S. cerevisiae mitotic spindle and primes the invariant inheritance of the old spindle pole body (SPB, the yeast centrosome) by the bud. This model has anticipated analogous centrosome asymmetries featured in self-renewing stem cell divisions. We previously implicated Spc72, the cytoplasmic receptor for the gamma-tubulin nucleation complex, as the most upstream determinant linking SPB age, functional asymmetry and fate. Here we used structured illumination microscopy and biochemical analysis to explore the asymmetric landscape of nucleation sites inherently built into the spindle pathway and under the control of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK). We show that CDK enforces Spc72 asymmetric docking by phosphorylating Nud1/centriolin. Furthermore, CDK-imposed order in the construction of the new SPB promotes the correct balance of nucleation sites between the nuclear and cytoplasmic faces of the SPB. Together these contributions by CDK inherently link correct SPB morphogenesis, age and fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Geymonat
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Qiuran Peng
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Zhiang Guo
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Zulin Yu
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, United States
| | - Jay R Unruh
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, United States
| | - Sue L Jaspersen
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, United States.,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, United States
| | - Marisa Segal
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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10
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Samarasimhareddy M, Mayer D, Metanis N, Veprintsev D, Hurevich M, Friedler A. A targeted approach for the synthesis of multi-phosphorylated peptides: a tool for studying the role of phosphorylation patterns in proteins. Org Biomol Chem 2019; 17:9284-9290. [PMID: 31497840 DOI: 10.1039/c9ob01874c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation barcodes, clusters of several phosphorylation sites within a short unfolded region, control many cellular processes. Existing biochemical methods used to study the roles of these barcodes suffer from low selectivity and provide only qualitative data. Chemically synthesized multiphosphopeptide libraries are selective and specific, but their synthesis is extremely difficult using the current peptide synthesis methods. Here we describe a new microwave assisted approach for synthesizing a library of multiphosphopeptides, using the C-terminus of rhodopsin as a proof of concept. Our approach utilizes multiple protocols for synthesizing libraries of multiphosphopeptides instead of the inefficient single protocol methods currently used. Using our approach we demonstrated the synthesis with up to seven phosphorylated amino acids, sometimes next to each other, an accomplishment that was impractical before. Synthesizing the Rhodopsin derived multiphosphopeptide library enabled dissecting the precise phosphorylation barcode required for the recruitment, activation and modulation of the conformation of Arrestin. Since phosphorylation barcodes modulate the activity of hundreds of GPCRs, synthesizing libraries of multiphosphopeptides is the method of choice for studying their molecular mechanisms of action. Our approach provides an invaluable tool for evaluating how protein phosphorylation barcodes regulate their activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamidi Samarasimhareddy
- Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Safra Campus, Givat Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Israel.
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11
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Chen D, Li Y, Zhang X, Wu H, Wang Q, Cai J, Cui Y, Liu H, Lan P, Wang J, Yang Z, Wang L. Ubiquitin ligase TRIM65 promotes colorectal cancer metastasis by targeting ARHGAP35 for protein degradation. Oncogene 2019; 38:6429-6444. [PMID: 31332286 PMCID: PMC6756236 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-019-0891-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Tripartite motif-containing protein 65 (TRIM65) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase and a critical regulator of a variety of cellular processes as well as tumor progression. Therefore, more substrates must be identified in the physiology or disease context. Here, we found that TRIM65 is upregulated and associated with poor survival in colorectal cancer (CRC). More specifically, high expression of TRIM65 is associated with CRC metastasis and recurrence. Ectopic overexpression of TRIM65 in CRC cell lines enhanced proliferation, invasion, and migration, while knockdown of TRIM65 expression had the opposite effects. Furthermore, we identified a new substrate of TRIM65, namely ARHGAP35, a Rho GTPase-activating protein (GAP) that is involved in polarized cell migration. Phenotypically, forced expression of TRIM65 induces increased production of migration-related structures, focal adhesions, and/or filopodia and enhances CRC metastasis to the liver or the lung in a mouse model. Mechanistic studies revealed that TRIM65 mediates ubiquitination of ARHGAP35, whose degradation leads to elevated Rho GTPase activity. In addition, we identified several phosphorylation sites on TRIM65. In sum, we reveal a novel TRIM65-GAP-Rho regulatory axis that modulates the actin cytoskeleton and the migration behavior of CRC cells, and the TRIM65-ARHGAP35 interaction might be a valuable therapeutic target in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daici Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. .,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Yichen Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaowen Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Haiyong Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jian Cai
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yanmei Cui
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huanliang Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ping Lan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Department of Colorectal Surgery, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jianping Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.,Department of Colorectal Surgery, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zihuan Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. .,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Lei Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. .,Guangdong Institute of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. .,Department of Colorectal Surgery, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
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12
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Iacovella MG, Bremang M, Basha O, Giacò L, Carotenuto W, Golfieri C, Szakal B, Dal Maschio M, Infantino V, Beznoussenko GV, Joseph CR, Visintin C, Mironov AA, Visintin R, Branzei D, Ferreira-Cerca S, Yeger-Lotem E, De Wulf P. Integrating Rio1 activities discloses its nutrient-activated network in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nucleic Acids Res 2019; 46:7586-7611. [PMID: 30011030 PMCID: PMC6125641 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gky618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The Saccharomyces cerevisiae kinase/adenosine triphosphatase Rio1 regulates rDNA transcription and segregation, pre-rRNA processing and small ribosomal subunit maturation. Other roles are unknown. When overexpressed, human ortholog RIOK1 drives tumor growth and metastasis. Likewise, RIOK1 promotes 40S ribosomal subunit biogenesis and has not been characterized globally. We show that Rio1 manages directly and via a series of regulators, an essential signaling network at the protein, chromatin and RNA levels. Rio1 orchestrates growth and division depending on resource availability, in parallel to the nutrient-activated Tor1 kinase. To define the Rio1 network, we identified its physical interactors, profiled its target genes/transcripts, mapped its chromatin-binding sites and integrated our data with yeast’s protein–protein and protein–DNA interaction catalogs using network computation. We experimentally confirmed network components and localized Rio1 also to mitochondria and vacuoles. Via its network, Rio1 commands protein synthesis (ribosomal gene expression, assembly and activity) and turnover (26S proteasome expression), and impinges on metabolic, energy-production and cell-cycle programs. We find that Rio1 activity is conserved to humans and propose that pathological RIOK1 may fuel promiscuous transcription, ribosome production, chromosomal instability, unrestrained metabolism and proliferation; established contributors to cancer. Our study will advance the understanding of numerous processes, here revealed to depend on Rio1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria G Iacovella
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Michael Bremang
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy.,Current address: Proteome Sciences Plc, Hamilton House, Mabledon Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Omer Basha
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Luciano Giacò
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Walter Carotenuto
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology (IFOM), Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Golfieri
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Barnabas Szakal
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology (IFOM), Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Marianna Dal Maschio
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Infantino
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Galina V Beznoussenko
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology (IFOM), Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Chinnu R Joseph
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology (IFOM), Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Clara Visintin
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Alexander A Mironov
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology (IFOM), Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Rosella Visintin
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Dana Branzei
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology (IFOM), Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy.,Istituto di Genetica Molecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Abbiategrasso 207, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Sébastien Ferreira-Cerca
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie III, Universität Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Esti Yeger-Lotem
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Peter De Wulf
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy.,Centre for Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123 Trento, Italy
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13
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Drennan AC, Krishna S, Seeger MA, Andreas MP, Gardner JM, Sether EKR, Jaspersen SL, Rayment I. Structure and function of Spc42 coiled-coils in yeast centrosome assembly and duplication. Mol Biol Cell 2019; 30:1505-1522. [PMID: 30969903 PMCID: PMC6724696 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e19-03-0167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrosomes and spindle pole bodies (SPBs) are membraneless organelles whose duplication and assembly is necessary for bipolar mitotic spindle formation. The structural organization and functional roles of major proteins in these organelles can provide critical insights into cell division control. Spc42, a phosphoregulated protein with an N-terminal dimeric coiled-coil (DCC), assembles into a hexameric array at the budding yeast SPB core, where it functions as a scaffold for SPB assembly. Here, we present in vitro and in vivo data to elucidate the structural arrangement and biological roles of Spc42 elements. Crystal structures reveal details of two additional coiled-coils in Spc42: a central trimeric coiled-coil and a C-terminal antiparallel DCC. Contributions of the three Spc42 coiled-coils and adjacent undetermined regions to the formation of an ∼145 Å hexameric lattice in an in vitro lipid monolayer assay and to SPB duplication and assembly in vivo reveal structural and functional redundancy in Spc42 assembly. We propose an updated model that incorporates the inherent symmetry of these Spc42 elements into a lattice, and thereby establishes the observed sixfold symmetry. The implications of this model for the organization of the central SPB core layer are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda C. Drennan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, WI 53706
| | | | - Mark A. Seeger
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, WI 53706
| | | | | | | | - Sue L. Jaspersen
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160
| | - Ivan Rayment
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, WI 53706
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14
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Kinetochore Recruitment of the Spindle and Kinetochore-Associated (Ska) Complex Is Regulated by Centrosomal PP2A in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 2019; 212:509-522. [PMID: 31018924 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.119.302105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
During mitosis, kinetochore-microtubule interactions ensure that chromosomes are accurately segregated to daughter cells. RSA-1 (regulator of spindle assembly-1) is a regulatory B″ subunit of protein phosphatase 2A that was previously proposed to modulate microtubule dynamics during spindle assembly. We have identified a genetic interaction between the centrosomal protein, RSA-1, and the spindle- and kinetochore-associated (Ska) complex in Caenorhabditis elegans In a forward genetic screen for suppressors of rsa-1(or598) embryonic lethality, we identified mutations in ska-1 and ska-3 Loss of SKA-1 and SKA-3, as well as components of the KMN (KNL-1/MIS-12/NDC-80) complex and the microtubule end-binding protein EBP-2, all suppressed the embryonic lethality of rsa-1(or598) These suppressors also disrupted the intracellular localization of the Ska complex, revealing a network of proteins that influence Ska function during mitosis. In rsa-1(or598) embryos, SKA-1 is excessively and prematurely recruited to kinetochores during spindle assembly, but SKA-1 levels return to normal just prior to anaphase onset. Loss of the TPX2 homolog, TPXL-1, also resulted in overrecruitment of SKA-1 to the kinetochores and this correlated with the loss of Aurora A kinase on the spindle microtubules. We propose that rsa-1 regulates the kinetochore localization of the Ska complex, with spindle-associated Aurora A acting as a potential mediator. These data reveal a novel mechanism of protein phosphatase 2A function during mitosis involving a centrosome-based regulatory mechanism for Ska complex recruitment to the kinetochore.
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15
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Payliss BJ, Vogel J, Mittermaier AK. Side chain electrostatic interactions and pH-dependent expansion of the intrinsically disordered, highly acidic carboxyl-terminus of γ-tubulin. Protein Sci 2019; 28:1095-1105. [PMID: 30968464 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Intramolecular electrostatic attraction and repulsion strongly influence the conformational sampling of intrinsically disordered proteins and domains (IDPs). In order to better understand this complex relationship, we have used nuclear magnetic resonance to measure side chain pKa values and pH-dependent translational diffusion coefficients for the unstructured and highly acidic carboxyl-terminus of γ-tubulin (γ-CT), providing insight into how the net charge of an IDP relates to overall expansion or collapse of the conformational ensemble. Many of the pKa values in the γ-CT are shifted upward by 0.3-0.4 units and exhibit negatively cooperative ionization pH profiles, likely due to the large net negative charge that accumulates on the molecule as the pH is raised. pKa shifts of this magnitude correspond to electrostatic interaction energies between the affected residues and the rest of the charged molecule that are each on the order of 1 kcal mol-1 . Diffusion of the γ-CT slowed with increasing net charge, indicative of an expanding hydrodynamic radius (rH ). The degree of expansion agreed quantitatively with what has been seen from comparisons of IDPs with different charge content, yielding the general trend that every 0.1 increase in relative charge (|Q|/res) produces a roughly 5% increase in rH . While γ-CT pH titration data followed this trend nearly perfectly, there were substantially larger deviations for the database of different IDP sequences. This suggests that other aspects of an IDP's primary amino acid sequence beyond net charge influence the sensitivity of rH to electrostatic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Payliss
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jackie Vogel
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,The School of Computer Science, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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16
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Regulation of Microtubule Nucleation in Mouse Bone Marrow-Derived Mast Cells by Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase SHP-1. Cells 2019; 8:cells8040345. [PMID: 30979083 PMCID: PMC6523986 DOI: 10.3390/cells8040345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The antigen-mediated activation of mast cells initiates signaling events leading to their degranulation, to the release of inflammatory mediators, and to the synthesis of cytokines and chemokines. Although rapid and transient microtubule reorganization during activation has been described, the molecular mechanisms that control their rearrangement are largely unknown. Microtubule nucleation is mediated by γ-tubulin complexes. In this study, we report on the regulation of microtubule nucleation in bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) by Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 (SHP-1; Ptpn6). Reciprocal immunoprecipitation experiments and pull-down assays revealed that SHP-1 is present in complexes containing γ-tubulin complex proteins and protein tyrosine kinase Syk. Microtubule regrowth experiments in cells with deleted SHP-1 showed a stimulation of microtubule nucleation, and phenotypic rescue experiments confirmed that SHP-1 represents a negative regulator of microtubule nucleation in BMMCs. Moreover, the inhibition of the SHP-1 activity by inhibitors TPI-1 and NSC87877 also augmented microtubule nucleation. The regulation was due to changes in γ-tubulin accumulation. Further experiments with antigen-activated cells showed that the deletion of SHP-1 stimulated the generation of microtubule protrusions, the activity of Syk kinase, and degranulation. Our data suggest a novel mechanism for the suppression of microtubule formation in the later stages of mast cell activation.
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17
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Fraschini R. Divide Precisely and Proliferate Safely: Lessons From Budding Yeast. Front Genet 2019; 9:738. [PMID: 30687396 PMCID: PMC6335322 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A faithful cell division is essential for proper cellular proliferation of all eukaryotic cells; indeed the correct segregation of the genetic material allows daughter cells to proceed into the cell cycle safely. Conversely, errors during chromosome partition generate aneuploid cells that have been associated to several human pathological conditions, including cancer. Given the importance of this issue, all the steps that lead to cell separation are finely regulated. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a unicellular eukaryotic organism that divides asymmetrically and it is a suitable model system to study the regulation of cell division. Humans and budding yeast are distant 1 billion years of evolution, nonetheless several essential pathways, proteins, and cellular structures are conserved. Among these, the mitotic spindle is a key player in chromosome segregation and its correct morphogenesis and functioning is essential for genomic stability. In this review we will focus on molecular pathways and proteins involved in the control mitotic spindle morphogenesis and function that are conserved from yeast to humans and whose impairment is connected with the development of human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Fraschini
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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18
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Microtubule nucleation by γ-tubulin complexes and beyond. Essays Biochem 2018; 62:765-780. [PMID: 30315097 PMCID: PMC6281477 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20180028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In this short review, we give an overview of microtubule nucleation within cells. It is nearly 30 years since the discovery of γ-tubulin, a member of the tubulin superfamily essential for proper microtubule nucleation in all eukaryotes. γ-tubulin associates with other proteins to form multiprotein γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs) that template and catalyse the otherwise kinetically unfavourable assembly of microtubule filaments. These filaments can be dynamic or stable and they perform diverse functions, such as chromosome separation during mitosis and intracellular transport in neurons. The field has come a long way in understanding γ-TuRC biology but several important and unanswered questions remain, and we are still far from understanding the regulation of microtubule nucleation in a multicellular context. Here, we review the current literature on γ-TuRC assembly, recruitment, and activation and discuss the potential importance of γ-TuRC heterogeneity, the role of non-γ-TuRC proteins in microtubule nucleation, and whether γ-TuRCs could serve as good drug targets for cancer therapy.
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19
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Fong KK, Zelter A, Graczyk B, Hoyt JM, Riffle M, Johnson R, MacCoss MJ, Davis TN. Novel phosphorylation states of the yeast spindle pole body. Biol Open 2018; 7:bio.033647. [PMID: 29903865 PMCID: PMC6215409 DOI: 10.1242/bio.033647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation regulates yeast spindle pole body (SPB) duplication and separation and likely regulates microtubule nucleation. We report a phosphoproteomic analysis using tandem mass spectrometry of enriched Saccharomyces cerevisiae SPBs for two cell cycle arrests, G1/S and the mitotic checkpoint, expanding on previously reported phosphoproteomic data sets. We present a novel phosphoproteomic state of SPBs arrested in G1/S by a cdc4-1 temperature-sensitive mutation, with particular focus on phosphorylation events on the γ-tubulin small complex (γ-TuSC). The cdc4-1 arrest is the earliest arrest at which microtubule nucleation has occurred at the newly duplicated SPB. Several novel phosphorylation sites were identified in G1/S and during mitosis on the microtubule nucleating γ-TuSC. These sites were analyzed in vivo by fluorescence microscopy and were shown to be required for proper regulation of spindle length. Additionally, in vivo analysis of two mitotic sites in Spc97 found that phosphorylation of at least one of these sites is required for progression through the cell cycle. This phosphoproteomic data set not only broadens the scope of the phosphoproteome of SPBs, it also identifies several γ-TuSC phosphorylation sites that influence microtubule formation. Summary: A phosphoproteome of yeast spindle pole bodies in G1/S or M phase identifies phosphorylation sites involved in spindle length control and provides direction for future phosphorylation analyses of spindle pole components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly K Fong
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Alex Zelter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Beth Graczyk
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Jill M Hoyt
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Michael Riffle
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Richard Johnson
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Michael J MacCoss
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Trisha N Davis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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20
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Chen F, Wu P, Hu H, Tian D, Jiang N, Wu C. Protein kinase TTK promotes proliferation and migration and mediates epithelial-mesenchymal transition in human bladder cancer cells. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2018; 11:4854-4861. [PMID: 31949560 PMCID: PMC6962905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
AIM To investigate the expression level of TTK in bladder cancer, and its role in the proliferation and migration. To investigate the relationship between TTK and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). PATIENTS AND METHODS We compared the expression level of TTK between human bladder cancer tissues and normal bladder epithelial tissues from 70 patients using immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and western blotting. Subsequently, we conducted cell viability and cell migration experiments to investigate the effect of TTK on bladder cancer cells. Furthermore, we used qRT-PCR to detect the biomarkers of EMT to examine the relationship between TTK and EMT. RESULTS The expression level of TTK was significantly higher in bladder cancer tissues as compared to the adjacent noncancerous tissues (P < 0.001). The qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and western blotting also showed the same trend. Furthermore, cell viability and cell migration assays showed that TTK promoted proliferation and migration of human bladder cancer cells, and mediated EMT. CONCLUSION This study showed that high expression of TTK can promote proliferation and migration, and might mediate the EMT process in human bladder cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feiran Chen
- Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
| | - Peikang Wu
- Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
| | - Hailong Hu
- Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
| | - Dawei Tian
- Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
| | - Ning Jiang
- Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
| | - Changli Wu
- Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
- Department of Urology, Sino-Singapore Eco-city Hospital of Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjin, China
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21
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Ovejero S, Ayala P, Malumbres M, Pimentel-Muiños FX, Bueno A, Sacristán MP. Biochemical analyses reveal amino acid residues critical for cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation of human Cdc14A phosphatase by cyclin-dependent kinase 1. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11871. [PMID: 30089874 PMCID: PMC6082843 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30253-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cdc14 enzymes compose a family of highly conserved phosphatases that are present in a wide range of organisms, including yeast and humans, and that preferentially reverse the phosphorylation of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (Cdk) substrates. The budding yeast Cdc14 orthologue has essential functions in the control of late mitosis and cytokinesis. In mammals, however, the two Cdc14 homologues, Cdc14A and Cdc14B, do not play a prominent role in controlling late mitotic events, suggesting that some Cdc14 functions are not conserved across species. Moreover, in yeast, Cdc14 is regulated by changes in its subcellular location and by phosphorylation events. In contrast, little is known about the regulation of human Cdc14 phosphatases. Here, we have studied how the human Cdc14A orthologue is regulated during the cell cycle. We found that Cdc14A is phosphorylated on Ser411, Ser453 and Ser549 by Cdk1 early in mitosis and becomes dephosphorylated during late mitotic stages. Interestingly, in vivo and in vitro experiments revealed that, unlike in yeast, Cdk1-mediated phosphorylation of human Cdc14A did not control its catalytic activity but likely modulated its interaction with other proteins in early mitosis. These findings point to differences in Cdk1-mediated mechanisms of regulation between human and yeast Cdc14 orthologues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ovejero
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), Universidad de Salamanca-CSIC, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Human Genetics, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Patricia Ayala
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), Universidad de Salamanca-CSIC, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Marcos Malumbres
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO), E-28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Felipe X Pimentel-Muiños
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), Universidad de Salamanca-CSIC, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Avelino Bueno
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), Universidad de Salamanca-CSIC, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.,Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - María P Sacristán
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), Universidad de Salamanca-CSIC, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain. .,Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
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22
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Jones MH, O'Toole ET, Fabritius AS, Muller EG, Meehl JB, Jaspersen SL, Winey M. Key phosphorylation events in Spc29 and Spc42 guide multiple steps of yeast centrosome duplication. Mol Biol Cell 2018; 29:2280-2291. [PMID: 30044722 PMCID: PMC6249810 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e18-05-0296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation modulates many cellular processes during cell cycle progression. The yeast centrosome (called the spindle pole body, SPB) is regulated by the protein kinases Mps1 and Cdc28/Cdk1 as it nucleates microtubules to separate chromosomes during mitosis. Previously we completed an SPB phosphoproteome, identifying 297 sites on 17 of the 18 SPB components. Here we describe mutagenic analysis of phosphorylation events on Spc29 and Spc42, two SPB core components that were shown in the phosphoproteome to be heavily phosphorylated. Mutagenesis at multiple sites in Spc29 and Spc42 suggests that much of the phosphorylation on these two proteins is not essential but enhances several steps of mitosis. Of the 65 sites examined on both proteins, phosphorylation of the Mps1 sites Spc29-T18 and Spc29-T240 was shown to be critical for function. Interestingly, these two sites primarily influence distinct successive steps; Spc29-T240 is important for the interaction of Spc29 with Spc42, likely during satellite formation, and Spc29-T18 facilitates insertion of the new SPB into the nuclear envelope and promotes anaphase spindle elongation. Phosphorylation sites within Cdk1 motifs affect function to varying degrees, but mutations only have significant effects in the presence of an MPS1 mutation, supporting a theme of coregulation by these two kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Haltiner Jones
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Eileen T O'Toole
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Amy S Fabritius
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Eric G Muller
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Janet B Meehl
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Sue L Jaspersen
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110.,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160
| | - Mark Winey
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
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23
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Lengefeld J, Barral Y. Asymmetric Segregation of Aged Spindle Pole Bodies During Cell Division: Mechanisms and Relevance Beyond Budding Yeast? Bioessays 2018; 40:e1800038. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.201800038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jette Lengefeld
- Institute of Biochemistry; ETH Zurich; Otto-Stern-Weg 3 8093 Zurich Switzerland
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 USA
| | - Yves Barral
- Institute of Biochemistry; ETH Zurich; Otto-Stern-Weg 3 8093 Zurich Switzerland
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24
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Joachimiak E, Jerka‐Dziadosz M, Krzemień‐Ojak Ł, Wacławek E, Jedynak K, Urbanska P, Brutkowski W, Sas‐Nowosielska H, Fabczak H, Gaertig J, Wloga D. Multiple phosphorylation sites on γ‐tubulin are essential and contribute to the biogenesis of basal bodies in
Tetrahymena. J Cell Physiol 2018; 233:8648-8665. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.26742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Joachimiak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Maria Jerka‐Dziadosz
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Łucja Krzemień‐Ojak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Ewa Wacławek
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Katarzyna Jedynak
- Faculty of BiologyDepartment of Animal PhysiologyInstitute of ZoologyUniversity of WarsawWarsawPoland
| | - Paulina Urbanska
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Wojciech Brutkowski
- Laboratory of Imaging Tissue Structure and FunctionNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Hanna Sas‐Nowosielska
- Laboratory of Imaging Tissue Structure and FunctionNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Hanna Fabczak
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Jacek Gaertig
- Department of Cellular BiologyUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGeorgia
| | - Dorota Wloga
- Laboratory of Cytoskeleton and Cilia BiologyDepartment of Cell BiologyNencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
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25
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Harris J, Shadrina M, Oliver C, Vogel J, Mittermaier A. Concerted millisecond timescale dynamics in the intrinsically disordered carboxyl terminus of γ-tubulin induced by mutation of a conserved tyrosine residue. Protein Sci 2018; 27:531-545. [PMID: 29127738 PMCID: PMC5775176 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Tubulins are an ancient family of eukaryotic proteins characterized by an amino-terminal globular domain and disordered carboxyl terminus. These carboxyl termini play important roles in modulating the behavior of microtubules in living cells. However, the atomic-level basis of their function is not well understood. These regions contain multiple acidic residues and their overall charges are modulated in vivo by post-translational modifications, for example, phosphorylation. In this study, we describe an application of NMR and computer Monte Carlo simulations to investigate how the modification of local charge alters the conformational sampling of the γ-tubulin carboxyl terminus. We compared the dynamics of two 39-residue polypeptides corresponding to the carboxyl-terminus of yeast γ-tubulin. One polypeptide comprised the wild-type amino acid sequence while the second contained a Y > D mutation at Y11 in the polypeptide (Y445 in the full protein). This mutation introduces additional negative charge at a site that is phosphorylated in vivo and produces a phenotype with perturbed microtubule function. NMR relaxation measurements show that the Y11D mutation produces dramatic changes in the millisecond-timescale motions of the entire polypeptide. This observation is supported by Monte Carlo simulations that-similar to NMR-predict the WT γ-CT is largely unstructured and that the substitution of Tyr 11 with Asp causes the sampling of extended conformations that are unique to the Y11D polypeptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Harris
- Department of ChemistryMcGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. WMontrealQuebecCanada
| | - Maria Shadrina
- Department of BiologyMcGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William OslerMontrealQuebecCanada
| | - Carlos Oliver
- Department of BiologyMcGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William OslerMontrealQuebecCanada
- The School of Computer ScienceMcGill University, 3480 University StMontrealQuebecCanada
| | - Jackie Vogel
- Department of BiologyMcGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William OslerMontrealQuebecCanada
- The School of Computer ScienceMcGill University, 3480 University StMontrealQuebecCanada
| | - Anthony Mittermaier
- Department of ChemistryMcGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. WMontrealQuebecCanada
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26
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Lengefeld J, Yen E, Chen X, Leary A, Vogel J, Barral Y. Spatial cues and not spindle pole maturation drive the asymmetry of astral microtubules between new and preexisting spindle poles. Mol Biol Cell 2017; 29:10-28. [PMID: 29142076 PMCID: PMC5746063 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e16-10-0725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The distinct behavior of the spindle pole bodies (SPBs) during spindle orientation in yeast metaphase does not result from them being differently mature, but astral microtubule organization correlates with the subcellular position rather than the age of the SPBs. In many asymmetrically dividing cells, the microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs; mammalian centrosome and yeast spindle pole body [SPB]) nucleate more astral microtubules on one of the two spindle poles than the other. This differential activity generally correlates with the age of MTOCs and contributes to orienting the mitotic spindle within the cell. The asymmetry might result from the two MTOCs being in distinctive maturation states. We investigated this model in budding yeast. Using fluorophores with different maturation kinetics to label the outer plaque components of the SPB, we found that the Cnm67 protein is mobile, whereas Spc72 is not. However, these two proteins were rapidly as abundant on both SPBs, indicating that SPBs mature more rapidly than anticipated. Superresolution microscopy confirmed this finding for Spc72 and for the γ-tubulin complex. Moreover, astral microtubule number and length correlated with the subcellular localization of SPBs rather than their age. Kar9-dependent orientation of the spindle drove the differential activity of the SPBs in astral microtubule organization rather than intrinsic differences between the spindle poles. Together, our data establish that Kar9 and spatial cues, rather than the kinetics of SPB maturation, control the asymmetry of astral microtubule organization between the preexisting and new SPBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jette Lengefeld
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eric Yen
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Xiuzhen Chen
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Allen Leary
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Jackie Vogel
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Yves Barral
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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27
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Cavanaugh AM, Jaspersen SL. Big Lessons from Little Yeast: Budding and Fission Yeast Centrosome Structure, Duplication, and Function. Annu Rev Genet 2017; 51:361-383. [PMID: 28934593 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120116-024733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Centrosomes are a functionally conserved feature of eukaryotic cells that play an important role in cell division. The conserved γ-tubulin complex organizes spindle and astral microtubules, which, in turn, separate replicated chromosomes accurately into daughter cells. Like DNA, centrosomes are duplicated once each cell cycle. Although in some cell types it is possible for cell division to occur in the absence of centrosomes, these divisions typically result in defects in chromosome number and stability. In single-celled organisms such as fungi, centrosomes [known as spindle pole bodies (SPBs)] are essential for cell division. SPBs also must be inserted into the membrane because fungi undergo a closed mitosis in which the nuclear envelope (NE) remains intact. This poorly understood process involves events similar or identical to those needed for de novo nuclear pore complex assembly. Here, we review how analysis of fungal SPBs has advanced our understanding of centrosomes and NE events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Cavanaugh
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110, USA;
| | - Sue L Jaspersen
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110, USA; .,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, USA
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28
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Shulist K, Yen E, Kaitna S, Leary A, Decterov A, Gupta D, Vogel J. Interrogation of γ-tubulin alleles using high-resolution fitness measurements reveals a distinct cytoplasmic function in spindle alignment. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11398. [PMID: 28900268 PMCID: PMC5595808 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11789-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
γ-Tubulin has a well-established role in nucleating the assembly of microtubules, yet how phosphorylation regulates its activity remains unclear. Here, we use a time-resolved, fitness-based SGA approach to compare two γ-tubulin alleles, and find that the genetic interaction profile of γtub-Y362E is enriched in spindle positioning and cell polarity genes relative to that of γtub-Y445D, which is enriched in genes involved in spindle assembly and stability. In γtub-Y362E cells, we find a defect in spindle alignment and an increase in the number of astral microtubules at both spindle poles. Our results suggest that the γtub-Y362E allele is a separation-of-function mutation that reveals a role for γ-tubulin phospho-regulation in spindle alignment. We propose that phosphorylation of the evolutionarily conserved Y362 residue of budding yeast γ-tubulin contributes to regulating the number of astral microtubules associated with spindle poles, and promoting efficient pre-anaphase spindle alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Shulist
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Eric Yen
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Susanne Kaitna
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Allen Leary
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Alexandra Decterov
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Debarun Gupta
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Jackie Vogel
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, Quebec, H3G 0B1, Canada.
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29
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Viswanath S, Bonomi M, Kim SJ, Klenchin VA, Taylor KC, Yabut KC, Umbreit NT, Van Epps HA, Meehl J, Jones MH, Russel D, Velazquez-Muriel JA, Winey M, Rayment I, Davis TN, Sali A, Muller EG. The molecular architecture of the yeast spindle pole body core determined by Bayesian integrative modeling. Mol Biol Cell 2017; 28:3298-3314. [PMID: 28814505 PMCID: PMC5687031 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e17-06-0397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A model of the core of the yeast spindle pole body (SPB) was created by a Bayesian modeling approach that integrated a diverse data set of biophysical, biochemical, and genetic information. The model led to a proposed pathway for the assembly of Spc110, a protein related to pericentrin, and a mechanism for how calmodulin strengthens the SPB during mitosis. Microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) form, anchor, and stabilize the polarized network of microtubules in a cell. The central MTOC is the centrosome that duplicates during the cell cycle and assembles a bipolar spindle during mitosis to capture and segregate sister chromatids. Yet, despite their importance in cell biology, the physical structure of MTOCs is poorly understood. Here we determine the molecular architecture of the core of the yeast spindle pole body (SPB) by Bayesian integrative structure modeling based on in vivo fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS), x-ray crystallography, electron microscopy, and two-hybrid analysis. The model is validated by several methods that include a genetic analysis of the conserved PACT domain that recruits Spc110, a protein related to pericentrin, to the SPB. The model suggests that calmodulin can act as a protein cross-linker and Spc29 is an extended, flexible protein. The model led to the identification of a single, essential heptad in the coiled-coil of Spc110 and a minimal PACT domain. It also led to a proposed pathway for the integration of Spc110 into the SPB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi Viswanath
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Massimiliano Bonomi
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 .,Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Seung Joong Kim
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Vadim A Klenchin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Keenan C Taylor
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - King C Yabut
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Neil T Umbreit
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | | | - Janet Meehl
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Michele H Jones
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Daniel Russel
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Javier A Velazquez-Muriel
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Mark Winey
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Ivan Rayment
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Trisha N Davis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Eric G Muller
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
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30
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Geymonat M, Segal M. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Determinants Linking Spindle Pole Fate, Spindle Polarity, and Asymmetric Cell Division in the Budding Yeast S. cerevisiae. Results Probl Cell Differ 2017; 61:49-82. [PMID: 28409300 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53150-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The budding yeast S. cerevisiae is a powerful model to understand the multiple layers of control driving an asymmetric cell division. In budding yeast, asymmetric targeting of the spindle poles to the mother and bud cell compartments respectively orients the mitotic spindle along the mother-bud axis. This program exploits an intrinsic functional asymmetry arising from the age distinction between the spindle poles-one inherited from the preceding division and the other newly assembled. Extrinsic mechanisms convert this age distinction into differential fate. Execution of this program couples spindle orientation with the segregation of the older spindle pole to the bud. Remarkably, similar stereotyped patterns of inheritance occur in self-renewing stem cell divisions underscoring the general importance of studying spindle polarity and differential fate in yeast. Here, we review the mechanisms accounting for this pivotal interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic asymmetries that translate spindle pole age into differential fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Geymonat
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EH, UK
| | - Marisa Segal
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EH, UK.
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31
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Lengefeld J, Hotz M, Rollins M, Baetz K, Barral Y. Budding yeast Wee1 distinguishes spindle pole bodies to guide their pattern of age-dependent segregation. Nat Cell Biol 2017; 19:941-951. [DOI: 10.1038/ncb3576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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32
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Insights regarding fungal phosphoproteomic analysis. Fungal Genet Biol 2017; 104:38-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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33
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Li P, Jin H, Koch BA, Abblett RL, Han X, Yates JR, Yu HG. Cleavage of the SUN-domain protein Mps3 at its N-terminus regulates centrosome disjunction in budding yeast meiosis. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006830. [PMID: 28609436 PMCID: PMC5487077 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrosomes organize microtubules and are essential for spindle formation and chromosome segregation during cell division. Duplicated centrosomes are physically linked, but how this linkage is dissolved remains unclear. Yeast centrosomes are tethered by a nuclear-envelope-attached structure called the half-bridge, whose components have mammalian homologues. We report here that cleavage of the half-bridge protein Mps3 promotes accurate centrosome disjunction in budding yeast. Mps3 is a single-pass SUN-domain protein anchored at the inner nuclear membrane and concentrated at the nuclear side of the half-bridge. Using the unique feature in yeast meiosis that centrosomes are linked for hours before their separation, we have revealed that Mps3 is cleaved at its nucleus-localized N-terminal domain, the process of which is regulated by its phosphorylation at serine 70. Cleavage of Mps3 takes place at the yeast centrosome and requires proteasome activity. We show that noncleavable Mps3 (Mps3-nc) inhibits centrosome separation during yeast meiosis. In addition, overexpression of mps3-nc in vegetative yeast cells also inhibits centrosome separation and is lethal. Our findings provide a genetic mechanism for the regulation of SUN-domain protein-mediated activities, including centrosome separation, by irreversible protein cleavage at the nuclear periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Li
- Department of Biological Science, the Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
- Zhejiang Gongshang University, Key Laboratory for Food Microbial Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Jin
- Department of Biological Science, the Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
| | - Bailey A Koch
- Department of Biological Science, the Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
| | - Rebecca L Abblett
- Department of Biological Science, the Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
| | - Xuemei Han
- The Scripps Research Institute, LaJolla, CA, United States of America
| | - John R Yates
- The Scripps Research Institute, LaJolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Hong-Guo Yu
- Department of Biological Science, the Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
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34
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The Mitotic Exit Network Regulates Spindle Pole Body Selection During Sporulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 2017; 206:919-937. [PMID: 28450458 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.116.194522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-based inheritance of centrosomes in eukaryotic cells is associated with faithful chromosome distribution in asymmetric cell divisions. During Saccharomyces cerevisiae ascospore formation, such an inheritance mechanism targets the yeast centrosome equivalents, the spindle pole bodies (SPBs) at meiosis II onset. Decreased nutrient availability causes initiation of spore formation at only the younger SPBs and their associated genomes. This mechanism ensures encapsulation of nonsister genomes, which preserves genetic diversity and provides a fitness advantage at the population level. Here, by usage of an enhanced system for sporulation-induced protein depletion, we demonstrate that the core mitotic exit network (MEN) is involved in age-based SPB selection. Moreover, efficient genome inheritance requires Dbf2/20-Mob1 during a late step in spore maturation. We provide evidence that the meiotic functions of the MEN are more complex than previously thought. In contrast to mitosis, completion of the meiotic divisions does not strictly rely on the MEN whereas its activity is required at different time points during spore development. This is reminiscent of vegetative MEN functions in spindle polarity establishment, mitotic exit, and cytokinesis. In summary, our investigation contributes to the understanding of age-based SPB inheritance during sporulation of S. cerevisiae and provides general insights on network plasticity in the context of a specialized developmental program. Moreover, the improved system for a developmental-specific tool to induce protein depletion will be useful in other biological contexts.
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35
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Kupke T, Malsam J, Schiebel E. A ternary membrane protein complex anchors the spindle pole body in the nuclear envelope in budding yeast. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:8447-8458. [PMID: 28356353 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.780601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) the multilayered spindle pole body (SPB) is embedded in the nuclear envelope (NE) at fusion sites of the inner and outer nuclear membrane. The SPB is built from 18 different proteins, including the three integral membrane proteins Mps3, Ndc1, and Mps2. These membrane proteins play an essential role in the insertion of the new SPB into the NE. How the huge core structure of the SPB is anchored in the NE has not been investigated thoroughly until now. The present model suggests that the NE protein Mps2 interacts via Bbp1 with Spc29, one of the coiled-coil proteins forming the central plaque of the SPB. To test this model, we purified and reconstituted the Mps2-Bbp1 complex from yeast and incorporated the complex into liposomes. We also demonstrated that Mps2-Bbp1 directly interacts with Mps3 and Ndc1. We then purified Spc29 and reconstituted the ternary Mps2-Bbp1-Spc29 complex, proving that Bbp1 can simultaneously interact with Mps2 and Spc29 and in this way link the central plaque of the SPB to the nuclear envelope. Interestingly, Bbp1 induced oligomerization of Spc29, which may represent an early step in SPB duplication. Together, this analysis provides important insights into the interaction network that inserts the new SPB into the NE and indicates that the Mps2-Bbp1 complex is the central unit of the SPB membrane anchor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kupke
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Allianz, Im Neuenheimer Feld 282, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jörg Malsam
- Biochemie-Zentrum der Universität Heidelberg (BZH), Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Elmar Schiebel
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Allianz, Im Neuenheimer Feld 282, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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36
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Dráberová E, Sulimenko V, Vinopal S, Sulimenko T, Sládková V, D'Agostino L, Sobol M, Hozák P, Křen L, Katsetos CD, Dráber P. Differential expression of human γ-tubulin isotypes during neuronal development and oxidative stress points to a γ-tubulin-2 prosurvival function. FASEB J 2017; 31:1828-1846. [PMID: 28119396 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201600846rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
γ-Tubulins are highly conserved members of the tubulin superfamily essential for microtubule nucleation. Humans possess 2 γ-tubulin genes. It is thought that γ-tubulin-1 represents a ubiquitous isotype, whereas γ-tubulin-2 is found predominantly in the brain, where it may be endowed with divergent functions beyond microtubule nucleation. The molecular basis of the purported functional differences between γ-tubulins is unknown. We report discrimination of human γ-tubulins according to their electrophoretic and immunochemical properties. In vitro mutagenesis revealed that the differences in electrophoretic mobility originate in the C-terminal regions of the γ-tubulins. Using epitope mapping, we discovered mouse monoclonal antibodies that can discriminate between human γ-tubulin isotypes. Real time quantitative RT-PCR and 2-dimensional-PAGE showed that γ-tubulin-1 is the dominant isotype in fetal neurons. Although γ-tubulin-2 accumulates in the adult brain, γ-tubulin-1 remains the major isotype in various brain regions. Localization of γ-tubulin-1 in mature neurons was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence microscopy on clinical samples and tissue microarrays. Differentiation of SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells by all-trans retinoic acid, or oxidative stress induced by mitochondrial inhibitors, resulted in upregulation of γ-tubulin-2, whereas the expression of γ-tubulin-1 was unchanged. Fractionation experiments and immunoelectron microscopy revealed an association of γ-tubulins with mitochondrial membranes. These data indicate that in the face of predominant γ-tubulin-1 expression, the accumulation of γ-tubulin-2 in mature neurons and neuroblastoma cells during oxidative stress may denote a prosurvival role of γ-tubulin-2 in neurons.-Dráberová, E., Sulimenko, V., Vinopal, S., Sulimenko, T., Sládková, V., D'Agostino, L., Sobol, M., Hozák, P., Křen, L., Katsetos, C. D., Dráber, P. Differential expression of human γ-tubulin isotypes during neuronal development and oxidative stress points to γ-tubulin-2 prosurvival function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduarda Dráberová
- Department of Biology of Cytoskeleton, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vadym Sulimenko
- Department of Biology of Cytoskeleton, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Vinopal
- Department of Biology of Cytoskeleton, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tetyana Sulimenko
- Department of Biology of Cytoskeleton, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimíra Sládková
- Department of Biology of Cytoskeleton, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Luca D'Agostino
- Department of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine, St. Christopher's Hospital for Children and Hahnemann University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Margaryta Sobol
- Department of the Nucleus, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Hozák
- Department of the Nucleus, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Leoš Křen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, St. Christopher's Hospital for Children and Hahnemann University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; and
| | - Christos D Katsetos
- Department of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine, St. Christopher's Hospital for Children and Hahnemann University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Pavel Dráber
- Department of Biology of Cytoskeleton, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic;
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37
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Ohta S, Kimura M, Takagi S, Toramoto I, Ishihama Y. Identification of Mitosis-Specific Phosphorylation in Mitotic Chromosome-Associated Proteins. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:3331-41. [PMID: 27504668 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
During mitosis, phosphorylation of chromosome-associated proteins is a key regulatory mechanism. Mass spectrometry has been successfully applied to determine the complete protein composition of mitotic chromosomes, but not to identify post-translational modifications. Here, we quantitatively compared the phosphoproteome of isolated mitotic chromosomes with that of chromosomes in nonsynchronized cells. We identified 4274 total phosphorylation sites and 350 mitosis-specific phosphorylation sites in mitotic chromosome-associated proteins. Significant mitosis-specific phosphorylation in centromere/kinetochore proteins was detected, although the chromosomal association of these proteins did not change throughout the cell cycle. This mitosis-specific phosphorylation might play a key role in regulation of mitosis. Further analysis revealed strong dependency of phosphorylation dynamics on kinase consensus patterns, thus linking the identified phosphorylation sites to known key mitotic kinases. Remarkably, chromosomal axial proteins such as non-SMC subunits of condensin, TopoIIα, and Kif4A, together with the chromosomal periphery protein Ki67 involved in the establishment of the mitotic chromosomal structure, demonstrated high phosphorylation during mitosis. These findings suggest a novel mechanism for regulation of chromosome restructuring in mitosis via protein phosphorylation. Our study generated a large quantitative database on protein phosphorylation in mitotic and nonmitotic chromosomes, thus providing insights into the dynamics of chromatin protein phosphorylation at mitosis onset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Ohta
- Center for Innovative and Translational Medicine Medical School, Kochi University Kohasu, Oko-cho, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Michiko Kimura
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University 46-29 Yoshidashimoadachi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Takagi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University 46-29 Yoshidashimoadachi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Iyo Toramoto
- Center for Innovative and Translational Medicine Medical School, Kochi University Kohasu, Oko-cho, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Yasushi Ishihama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University 46-29 Yoshidashimoadachi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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38
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Masuda H, Toda T. Synergistic role of fission yeast Alp16GCP6 and Mzt1MOZART1 in γ-tubulin complex recruitment to mitotic spindle pole bodies and spindle assembly. Mol Biol Cell 2016; 27:1753-63. [PMID: 27053664 PMCID: PMC4884066 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e15-08-0577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In fission yeast, γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC)-specific components Gfh1(GCP4), Mod21(GCP5), and Alp16(GCP6) are nonessential for cell growth. Of these deletion mutants, only alp16Δ shows synthetic lethality with temperature-sensitive mutants of Mzt1(MOZART1), a component of the γTuRC required for recruitment of the complex to microtubule-organizing centers. γ-Tubulin small complex levels at mitotic spindle pole bodies (SPBs, the centrosome equivalent in fungi) and microtubule levels for preanaphase spindles are significantly reduced in alp16Δ cells but not in gfh1Δ or mod21Δ cells. Furthermore, alp16Δ cells often form monopolar spindles and frequently lose a minichromosome when the spindle assembly checkpoint is inactivated. Alp16(GCP6) promotes Mzt1-dependent γTuRC recruitment to mitotic SPBs and enhances spindle microtubule assembly in a manner dependent on its expression levels. Gfh1(GCP4) and Mod21(GCP5) are not required for Alp16(GCP6)-dependent γTuRC recruitment. Mzt1 has an additional role in the activation of the γTuRC for spindle microtubule assembly. The ratio of Mzt1 to γTuRC levels for preanaphase spindles is higher than at other stages of the cell cycle. Mzt1 overproduction enhances spindle microtubule assembly without affecting γTuRC levels at mitotic SPBs. We propose that Alp16(GCP6) and Mzt1 act synergistically for efficient bipolar spindle assembly to ensure faithful chromosome segregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirohisa Masuda
- Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London WC2A 3LY, United Kingdom
| | - Takashi Toda
- Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London WC2A 3LY, United Kingdom Hiroshima Research Center for Healthy Aging, Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8530, Japan
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39
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Lyon AS, Morin G, Moritz M, Yabut KCB, Vojnar T, Zelter A, Muller E, Davis TN, Agard DA. Higher-order oligomerization of Spc110p drives γ-tubulin ring complex assembly. Mol Biol Cell 2016; 27:2245-58. [PMID: 27226487 PMCID: PMC4945142 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e16-02-0072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Assembly of the microtubule-nucleating γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) requires higher-order oligomerization of Spc110p, which connects γTuRC to the yeast spindle pole body (SPB). Because Spc110p is highly concentrated at the SPB, spatial regulation of microtubule nucleation is thus achieved by exclusive assembly of γTuRCs proximal to the SPB. The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton plays important roles in many cellular processes. In vivo, MT nucleation is controlled by the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC), a 2.1-MDa complex composed of γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC) subunits. The mechanisms underlying the assembly of γTuRC are largely unknown. In yeast, the conserved protein Spc110p both stimulates the assembly of the γTuRC and anchors the γTuRC to the spindle pole body. Using a quantitative in vitro FRET assay, we show that γTuRC assembly is critically dependent on the oligomerization state of Spc110p, with higher-order oligomers dramatically enhancing the stability of assembled γTuRCs. Our in vitro findings were confirmed with a novel in vivo γTuSC recruitment assay. We conclude that precise spatial control over MT nucleation is achieved by coupling localization and higher-order oligomerization of the receptor for γTuRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Lyon
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Geneviève Morin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Michelle Moritz
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | | | - Tamira Vojnar
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Alex Zelter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Eric Muller
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Trisha N Davis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - David A Agard
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
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40
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Ear PH, Kowarzyk J, Booth MJ, Abd-Rabbo D, Shulist K, Hall C, Vogel J, Michnick SW. Combining the Optimized Yeast Cytosine Deaminase Protein Fragment Complementation Assay and an In Vitro Cdk1 Targeting Assay to Study the Regulation of the γ-Tubulin Complex. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1342:237-57. [PMID: 26254928 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2957-3_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Cdk1 is the essential cyclin-dependent kinase in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cdk1 orchestrates cell cycle control by phosphorylating target proteins with extraordinary temporal and spatial specificity by complexing with one of the nine cyclin regulatory subunits. The identification of the cyclin required for targeting Cdk1 to a substrate can help to place the regulation of that protein at a specific time point during the cell cycle and reveal information needed to elucidate the biological significance of the regulation. Here, we describe a combination of strategies to identify interaction partners of Cdk1, and associate these complexes to the appropriate cyclins using a cell-based protein-fragment complementation assay. Validation of the specific reliance of the OyCD interaction between Cdk1 and budding yeast γ-tubulin on the Clb3 cyclin, relative to the mitotic Clb2 cyclin, was performed by an in vitro kinase assay using the γ-tubulin complex as a substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po Hien Ear
- Département de Biochimie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, Canada, H3C 3J7
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41
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Takatani S, Otani K, Kanazawa M, Takahashi T, Motose H. Structure, function, and evolution of plant NIMA-related kinases: implication for phosphorylation-dependent microtubule regulation. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2015; 128:875-91. [PMID: 26354760 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-015-0751-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are highly dynamic structures that control the spatiotemporal pattern of cell growth and division. Microtubule dynamics are regulated by reversible protein phosphorylation involving both protein kinases and phosphatases. Never in mitosis A (NIMA)-related kinases (NEKs) are a family of serine/threonine kinases that regulate microtubule-related mitotic events in fungi and animal cells (e.g. centrosome separation and spindle formation). Although plants contain multiple members of the NEK family, their functions remain elusive. Recent studies revealed that NEK6 of Arabidopsis thaliana regulates cell expansion and morphogenesis through β-tubulin phosphorylation and microtubule destabilization. In addition, plant NEK members participate in organ development and stress responses. The present phylogenetic analysis indicates that plant NEK genes are diverged from a single NEK6-like gene, which may share a common ancestor with other kinases involved in the control of microtubule organization. On the contrary, another mitotic kinase, polo-like kinase, might have been lost during the evolution of land plants. We propose that plant NEK members have acquired novel functions to regulate cell growth, microtubule organization, and stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Takatani
- Division of Bioscience, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Kento Otani
- Division of Bioscience, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Mai Kanazawa
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Taku Takahashi
- Division of Bioscience, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Motose
- Division of Bioscience, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Okayama University, Tsushimanaka 3-1-1, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan.
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42
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Peng Y, Moritz M, Han X, Giddings TH, Lyon A, Kollman J, Winey M, Yates J, Agard DA, Drubin DG, Barnes G. Interaction of CK1δ with γTuSC ensures proper microtubule assembly and spindle positioning. Mol Biol Cell 2015; 26:2505-18. [PMID: 25971801 PMCID: PMC4571304 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e14-12-1627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Casein kinase 1δ (CK1δ) family members associate with microtubule-organizing centers from yeast to humans. Budding yeast CK1δ, Hrr25, directly phosphorylated γTuSC proteins in vivo and in vitro, and this phosphorylation promoted δTuSC integrity and activity in biochemical assays. Casein kinase 1δ (CK1δ) family members associate with microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) from yeast to humans, but their mitotic roles and targets have yet to be identified. We show here that budding yeast CK1δ, Hrr25, is a γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC) binding factor. Moreover, Hrr25's association with γTuSC depends on its kinase activity and its noncatalytic central domain. Loss of Hrr25 kinase activity resulted in assembly of unusually long cytoplasmic microtubules and defects in spindle positioning, consistent with roles in regulation of γTuSC-mediated microtubule nucleation and the Kar9 spindle-positioning pathway, respectively. Hrr25 directly phosphorylated γTuSC proteins in vivo and in vitro, and this phosphorylation promoted γTuSC integrity and activity. Because CK1δ and γTuSC are highly conserved and present at MTOCs in diverse eukaryotes, similar regulatory mechanisms are expected to apply generally in eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutian Peng
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Michelle Moritz
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Xuemei Han
- Department of Chemical Physiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Thomas H Giddings
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Andrew Lyon
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Justin Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Mark Winey
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - John Yates
- Department of Chemical Physiology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - David A Agard
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - David G Drubin
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Georjana Barnes
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
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43
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Targeting of γ-tubulin complexes to microtubule organizing centers: conservation and divergence. Trends Cell Biol 2015; 25:296-307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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44
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Sulimenko V, Hájková Z, Černohorská M, Sulimenko T, Sládková V, Dráberová L, Vinopal S, Dráberová E, Dráber P. Microtubule Nucleation in Mouse Bone Marrow–Derived Mast Cells Is Regulated by the Concerted Action of GIT1/βPIX Proteins and Calcium. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:4099-111. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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45
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LaCava J, Molloy KR, Taylor MS, Domanski M, Chait BT, Rout MP. Affinity proteomics to study endogenous protein complexes: pointers, pitfalls, preferences and perspectives. Biotechniques 2015; 58:103-19. [PMID: 25757543 PMCID: PMC4465938 DOI: 10.2144/000114262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Dissecting and studying cellular systems requires the ability to specifically isolate distinct proteins along with the co-assembled constituents of their associated complexes. Affinity capture techniques leverage high affinity, high specificity reagents to target and capture proteins of interest along with specifically associated proteins from cell extracts. Affinity capture coupled to mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic analyses has enabled the isolation and characterization of a wide range of endogenous protein complexes. Here, we outline effective procedures for the affinity capture of protein complexes, highlighting best practices and common pitfalls.
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Affiliation(s)
- John LaCava
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York
- Institute for Systems Genetics, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Kelly R. Molloy
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Gaseous Ion Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY
| | - Martin S. Taylor
- High Throughput Biology Center and Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Michal Domanski
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York
- Centre for mRNP Biogenesis and Metabolism, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Brian T. Chait
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Gaseous Ion Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY
| | - Michael P. Rout
- Laboratory of Cellular and Structural Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York
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46
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Fischer JDSDG, Dos Santos MDM, Marchini FK, Barbosa VC, Carvalho PC, Zanchin NIT. A scoring model for phosphopeptide site localization and its impact on the question of whether to use MSA. J Proteomics 2015; 129:42-50. [PMID: 25623781 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Revised: 01/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The production of structurally significant product ions during the dissociation of phosphopeptides is a key to the successful determination of phosphorylation sites. These diagnostic ions can be generated using the widely adopted MS/MS approach, MS3 (Data Dependent Neutral Loss - DDNL), or by multistage activation (MSA). The main purpose of this work is to introduce a false-localization rate (FLR) probabilistic model to enable unbiased phosphoproteomics studies. Briefly, our algorithm infers a probabilistic function from the distribution of the identified phosphopeptides' XCorr Delta scores (XD-Scores) in the current experiment. Our module infers p-values by relying on Gaussian mixture models and a logistic function. We demonstrate the usefulness of our probabilistic model by revisiting the "to MSA, or not to MSA" dilemma. For this, we use human leukemia-derived cells (K562) as a study model and enriched for phosphopeptides using the hydroxyapatite (HAP) chromatography. The aliquots were analyzed with and without MSA on an Orbitrap-XL. Our XD-Scoring analysis revealed that the MS/MS approach provides more identifications because of its faster scan rate, but that for the same given scan rate higher-confidence spectra can be achieved with MSA. Our software is integrated into the PatternLab for proteomics freely available for academic community at http://www.patternlabforproteomics.org. Biological significance Assigning statistical confidence to phosphorylation sites is necessary for proper phosphoproteomic assessment. Here we present a rigorous statistical model, based on Gaussian mixture models and a logistic function, which overcomes shortcomings of previous tools. The algorithm described herein is made readily available to the scientific community by integrating it into the widely adopted PatternLab for proteomics. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Computational Proteomics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marlon D M Dos Santos
- Laboratory for Proteomics and Protein Engineering, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Fabricio K Marchini
- Functional Genomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Valmir C Barbosa
- Systems Engineering and Computer Science Program, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Paulo C Carvalho
- Laboratory for Proteomics and Protein Engineering, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Nilson I T Zanchin
- Laboratory for Proteomics and Protein Engineering, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz, Paraná, Brazil.
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47
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Ring closure activates yeast γTuRC for species-specific microtubule nucleation. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2015; 22:132-7. [PMID: 25599398 PMCID: PMC4318760 DOI: 10.1038/nsmb.2953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) is the primary microtubule nucleator in cells. γTuRC is assembled from repeating γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC) subunits and is thought to function as a template by presenting a γ-tubulin ring that mimics microtubule geometry. However, a previous yeast γTuRC structure showed γTuSC in an open conformation that prevents matching to microtubule symmetry. By contrast, we show here that γ-tubulin complexes are in a closed conformation when attached to microtubules. To confirm the functional importance of the closed γTuSC ring, we trapped the closed state and determined its structure, showing that the γ-tubulin ring precisely matches microtubule symmetry and providing detailed insight into γTuRC architecture. Importantly, the closed state is a stronger nucleator, thus suggesting that this conformational switch may allosterically control γTuRC activity. Finally, we demonstrate that γTuRCs have a strong preference for tubulin from the same species.
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48
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Avena JS, Burns S, Yu Z, Ebmeier CC, Old WM, Jaspersen SL, Winey M. Licensing of yeast centrosome duplication requires phosphoregulation of sfi1. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004666. [PMID: 25340401 PMCID: PMC4207612 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Duplication of centrosomes once per cell cycle is essential for bipolar spindle formation and genome maintenance and is controlled in part by cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). Our study identifies Sfi1, a conserved component of centrosomes, as the first Cdk substrate required to restrict centrosome duplication to once per cell cycle. We found that reducing Cdk1 phosphorylation by changing Sfi1 phosphorylation sites to nonphosphorylatable residues leads to defects in separation of duplicated spindle pole bodies (SPBs, yeast centrosomes) and to inappropriate SPB reduplication during mitosis. These cells also display defects in bipolar spindle assembly, chromosome segregation, and growth. Our findings lead to a model whereby phosphoregulation of Sfi1 by Cdk1 has the dual function of promoting SPB separation for spindle formation and preventing premature SPB duplication. In addition, we provide evidence that the protein phosphatase Cdc14 has the converse role of activating licensing, likely via dephosphorylation of Sfi1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer S. Avena
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Shannon Burns
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Zulin Yu
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Christopher C. Ebmeier
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - William M. Old
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Sue L. Jaspersen
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Mark Winey
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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49
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Lee IJ, Wang N, Hu W, Schott K, Bähler J, Giddings TH, Pringle JR, Du LL, Wu JQ. Regulation of spindle pole body assembly and cytokinesis by the centrin-binding protein Sfi1 in fission yeast. Mol Biol Cell 2014; 25:2735-49. [PMID: 25031431 PMCID: PMC4161509 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e13-11-0699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A previous model suggested doubling of Sfi1 as the first step of SPB assembly. Here it is shown that Sfi1 is gradually recruited to SPBs throughout the cell cycle. Conserved tryptophans in Sfi1 are required for its equal partitioning during mitosis, and unequal partitioning of Sfi1 underlies SPB assembly and mitotic defects in the next cell cycle. Centrosomes play critical roles in the cell division cycle and ciliogenesis. Sfi1 is a centrin-binding protein conserved from yeast to humans. Budding yeast Sfi1 is essential for the initiation of spindle pole body (SPB; yeast centrosome) duplication. However, the recruitment and partitioning of Sfi1 to centrosomal structures have never been fully investigated in any organism, and the presumed importance of the conserved tryptophans in the internal repeats of Sfi1 remains untested. Here we report that in fission yeast, instead of doubling abruptly at the initiation of SPB duplication and remaining at a constant level thereafter, Sfi1 is gradually recruited to SPBs throughout the cell cycle. Like an sfi1Δ mutant, a Trp-to-Arg mutant (sfi1-M46) forms monopolar spindles and exhibits mitosis and cytokinesis defects. Sfi1-M46 protein associates preferentially with one of the two daughter SPBs during mitosis, resulting in a failure of new SPB assembly in the SPB receiving insufficient Sfi1. Although all five conserved tryptophans tested are involved in Sfi1 partitioning, the importance of the individual repeats in Sfi1 differs. In summary, our results reveal a link between the conserved tryptophans and Sfi1 partitioning and suggest a revision of the model for SPB assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Ju Lee
- Graduate Program of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Ning Wang
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Wen Hu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Kersey Schott
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Jürg Bähler
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas H Giddings
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - John R Pringle
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Li-Lin Du
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Jian-Qiu Wu
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
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50
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Elserafy M, Šarić M, Neuner A, Lin TC, Zhang W, Seybold C, Sivashanmugam L, Schiebel E. Molecular Mechanisms that Restrict Yeast Centrosome Duplication to One Event per Cell Cycle. Curr Biol 2014; 24:1456-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Revised: 05/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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