1
|
Faure Y, Bayart E. Experimental evidence of seismic ruptures initiated by aseismic slip. Nat Commun 2024; 15:8217. [PMID: 39294157 PMCID: PMC11410818 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-52492-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 09/11/2024] [Indexed: 09/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Seismic faults release the stress accumulated during tectonic movement through rapid ruptures or slow-slip events. The role of slow-slip events is crucial as they impact earthquakes occurrence. However, the mechanisms by which slow-slip affects the failure of frictionally locked regions remain elusive. Here, building on laboratory experiments, we establish that a slow-slip region acts as a nucleation center for seismic rupture, enhancing earthquakes' frequency. We emulate slow-slip regions by introducing a granular material along part of a laboratory fault. Measuring the fault's response to shear reveals that the heterogeneity serves as an initial rupture, reducing the fault shear resistance. Additionally, the slow-slip region extends beyond the heterogeneity with increasing normal load, demonstrating that fault composition is not the only requirement for slow-slip. Our results show that slow-slip modifies rupture nucleation dynamics, highlighting the importance of accounting for the evolution of the slow-slip region under varying conditions for seismic hazard mitigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yohann Faure
- Laboratoire de Physique, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, 46 allée d'Italie, Lyon, 69007, France
| | - Elsa Bayart
- Laboratoire de Physique, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, 46 allée d'Italie, Lyon, 69007, France.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Volpe G, Collettini C, Taddeucci J, Marone C, Pozzi G. Frictional instabilities in clay illuminate the origin of slow earthquakes. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadn0869. [PMID: 38941467 PMCID: PMC11212734 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adn0869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
The shallowest regions of subduction megathrusts mainly deform aseismically, but they can sporadically host slow-slip events (SSEs) and tsunami earthquakes, thus representing a severe hazard. However, the mechanisms behind these remain enigmatic because the frictional properties of shallow subduction zones, usually rich in clay, do not allow earthquake slip according to standard friction theory. We present experimental data showing that clay-rich faults with bulk rate-strengthening behavior and null healing rate, typically associated with aseismic creep, can contemporaneously creep and nucleate SSE. Our experiments document slow ruptures occurring within thin shear zones, driven by structural and stress heterogeneities of the experimental faults. We propose that bulk rate-strengthening frictional behavior promotes long-term aseismic creep, whereas localized frictional shear allows slow rupture nucleation and quasi-dynamic propagation typical of rate-weakening behavior. Our results provide additional understanding of fault friction and illustrate the complex behavior of clay-rich faults, providing an alternative paradigm for interpretation of the spectrum of fault slip including SSEs and tsunami earthquakes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Volpe
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, La Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristiano Collettini
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, La Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Chris Marone
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, La Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
- Department of Geoscience, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Giacomo Pozzi
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kammer DS, McLaskey GC, Abercrombie RE, Ampuero JP, Cattania C, Cocco M, Dal Zilio L, Dresen G, Gabriel AA, Ke CY, Marone C, Selvadurai PA, Tinti E. Earthquake energy dissipation in a fracture mechanics framework. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4736. [PMID: 38830886 PMCID: PMC11148115 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47970-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Earthquakes are rupture-like processes that propagate along tectonic faults and cause seismic waves. The propagation speed and final area of the rupture, which determine an earthquake's potential impact, are directly related to the nature and quantity of the energy dissipation involved in the rupture process. Here, we present the challenges associated with defining and measuring the energy dissipation in laboratory and natural earthquakes across many scales. We discuss the importance and implications of distinguishing between energy dissipation that occurs close to and far behind the rupture tip, and we identify open scientific questions related to a consistent modeling framework for earthquake physics that extends beyond classical Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David S Kammer
- Institute for Building Materials, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Gregory C McLaskey
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Jean-Paul Ampuero
- Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, IRD, CNRS, Géoazur, Valbonne, France
| | - Camilla Cattania
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Massimo Cocco
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Dal Zilio
- Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Georg Dresen
- Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alice-Agnes Gabriel
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD, La Jolla, USA
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Chun-Yu Ke
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Chris Marone
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- La Sapienza Universitá di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italia
| | | | - Elisa Tinti
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
- La Sapienza Universitá di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Shi S, Wang M, Poles Y, Fineberg J. How frictional slip evolves. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8291. [PMID: 38092832 PMCID: PMC10719317 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44086-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Earthquake-like ruptures break the contacts that form the frictional interface separating contacting bodies and mediate the onset of frictional motion (stick-slip). The slip (motion) of the interface immediately resulting from the rupture that initiates each stick-slip event is generally much smaller than the total slip logged over the duration of the event. Slip after the onset of friction is generally attributed to continuous motion globally attributed to 'dynamic friction'. Here we show, by means of direct measurements of real contact area and slip at the frictional interface, that sequences of myriad hitherto invisible, secondary ruptures are triggered immediately in the wake of each initial rupture. Each secondary rupture generates incremental slip that, when not resolved, may appear as steady sliding of the interface. Each slip increment is linked, via fracture mechanics, to corresponding variations of contact area and local strain. Only by accounting for the contributions of these secondary ruptures can the accumulated interface slip be described. These results have important ramifications both to our fundamental understanding of frictional motion as well as to the essential role of aftershocks within natural faults in generating earthquake-mediated slip.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Songlin Shi
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Meng Wang
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Yonatan Poles
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Jay Fineberg
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang M, Shi S, Fineberg J. Tensile cracks can shatter classical speed limits. Science 2023; 381:415-419. [PMID: 37499022 DOI: 10.1126/science.adg7693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Brittle materials fail by means of rapid cracks. Classical fracture mechanics describes the motion of tensile cracks that dissipate released elastic energy within a point-like zone at their tips. Within this framework, a "classical" tensile crack cannot exceed the Rayleigh wave speed, [Formula: see text]. Using brittle neo-hookean materials, we experimentally demonstrate the existence of "supershear" tensile cracks that exceed shear wave speeds, [Formula: see text]. Supershear cracks smoothly accelerate beyond [Formula: see text], to speeds that could approach dilatation wave speeds. Supershear dynamics are governed by different principles than those guiding "classical" cracks; this fracture mode is excited at critical (material dependent) applied strains. This nonclassical mode of tensile fracture represents a fundamental shift in our understanding of the fracture process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meng Wang
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Songlin Shi
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Jay Fineberg
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fielding SM. Model of Friction with Plastic Contact Nudging: Amontons-Coulomb Laws, Aging of Static Friction, and Nonmonotonic Stribeck Curves with Finite Quasistatic Limit. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 130:178203. [PMID: 37172252 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.130.178203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a model of friction between two contacting (stationary or cosliding) rough surfaces, each comprising a random ensemble of polydisperse hemispherical bumps. In the simplest version of the model, the bumps experience on contact with each other only pairwise elastic repulsion and dissipative drag. These minimal ingredients are sufficient to capture a static state of jammed, interlocking contacting bumps, below a critical frictional force that is proportional to the normal load and independent of the apparent contact area, consistent with the Amontons-Coulomb laws of friction. However, they fail to capture two widespread observations: (i) that the dynamic friction coefficient (ratio of frictional to normal force in steady sliding) is a roughly constant or slightly weakening function of the sliding velocity U, at low U, with a nonzero quasistatic limit as U→0 and (ii) that the static friction coefficient (ratio of frictional to normal force needed to initiate sliding) increases ("ages") as a function of the time that surfaces are pressed together in stationary contact, before sliding commences. To remedy these shortcomings, we incorporate a single additional model ingredient: that contacting bumps plastically nudge one another slightly sideways, above a critical contact-contact load. With this additional insight, the model also captures observations (i) and (ii).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M Fielding
- Department of Physics, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Dong P, Xia K, Xu Y, Elsworth D, Ampuero JP. Laboratory earthquakes decipher control and stability of rupture speeds. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2427. [PMID: 37105963 PMCID: PMC10140064 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38137-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Earthquakes are destructive natural hazards with damage capacity dictated by rupture speeds. Traditional dynamic rupture models predict that earthquake ruptures gradually accelerate to the Rayleigh wave speed with some of them further jumping to stable supershear speeds above the Eshelby speed (~[Formula: see text] times S wave speed). However, the 2018 Mw 7.5 Palu earthquake, among several others, significantly challenges such a viewpoint. Here we generate spontaneous shear ruptures on laboratory faults to confirm that ruptures can indeed attain steady subRayleigh or supershear propagation speeds immediately following nucleation. A self-similar analysis of dynamic rupture confirms our observation, leading to a simple model where the rupture speed is uniquely dependent on a driving load. Our results reproduce and explain a number of enigmatic field observations on earthquake speeds, including the existence of stable subEshelby supershear ruptures, early onset of supershear ruptures, and the correlation between the rupture speed and the driving load.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Dong
- Institute of Geosafety, School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Kaiwen Xia
- Institute of Geosafety, School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China.
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A4, Canada.
- State Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Simulation and Safety, School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.
| | - Ying Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Simulation and Safety, School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Derek Elsworth
- Energy and Mineral Engineering & Geosciences, G3 Center and EMS Energy Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Jean-Paul Ampuero
- Géoazur, Université Côte d'Azur, IRD, CNRS, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur; 250 rue Albert Einstein, 14 Sophia Antipolis, 06560, Valbonne, France
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
de Geus TWJ, Wyart M. Scaling theory for the statistics of slip at frictional interfaces. Phys Rev E 2022; 106:065001. [PMID: 36671104 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.106.065001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Slip at a frictional interface occurs via intermittent events. Understanding how these events are nucleated, can propagate, or stop spontaneously remains a challenge, central to earthquake science and tribology. In the absence of disorder, rate-and-state approaches predict a diverging nucleation length at some stress σ^{*}, beyond which cracks can propagate. Here we argue for a flat interface that disorder is a relevant perturbation to this description. We justify why the distribution of slip contains two parts: a power law corresponding to "avalanches" and a "narrow" distribution of system-spanning "fracture" events. We derive novel scaling relations for avalanches, including a relation between the stress drop and the spatial extension of a slip event. We compute the cut-off length beyond which avalanches cannot be stopped by disorder, leading to a system-spanning fracture, and successfully test these predictions in a minimal model of frictional interfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T W J de Geus
- Physics Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matthieu Wyart
- Physics Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Li GY, Feng X, Ramier A, Yun SH. Supershear surface waves reveal prestress and anisotropy of soft materials. JOURNAL OF THE MECHANICS AND PHYSICS OF SOLIDS 2022; 169:105085. [PMID: 37828998 PMCID: PMC10569666 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmps.2022.105085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Surface waves play important roles in many fundamental and applied areas from seismic detection to material characterizations. Supershear surface waves with propagation speeds greater than bulk shear waves have recently been reported, but their properties are not well understood. Here we describe theoretical and experimental results on supershear surface waves in rubbery materials. We find that supershear surface waves can be supported in viscoelastic materials with no restriction on the shear quality factor. Interestingly, the effect of prestress on the speed of the supershear surface wave is opposite to that of the Rayleigh surface wave. Furthermore, anisotropy of material affects the supershear wave much more strongly than the Rayleigh surface wave. We offer heuristic interpretation as well as theoretical verification of our experimental observations. Our work points to the potential applications of supershear waves for characterizing the bulk mechanical properties of soft solid from the free surface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Yang Li
- Harvard Medical School and Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02139, USA
| | - Xu Feng
- Harvard Medical School and Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02139, USA
| | - Antoine Ramier
- Harvard Medical School and Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02139, USA
| | - Seok-Hyun Yun
- Harvard Medical School and Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02139, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Trottet B, Simenhois R, Bobillier G, Bergfeld B, van Herwijnen A, Jiang C, Gaume J. Transition from sub-Rayleigh anticrack to supershear crack propagation in snow avalanches. NATURE PHYSICS 2022; 18:1094-1098. [PMID: 36097630 PMCID: PMC9458539 DOI: 10.1038/s41567-022-01662-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Snow slab avalanches, characterized by a distinct, broad fracture line, are released following anticrack propagation in highly porous weak snow layers buried below cohesive slabs. The anticrack mechanism is driven by the volumetric collapse of the weak layer, which leads to the closure of crack faces and to the onset of frictional contact. Here, on the basis of snow fracture experiments, full-scale avalanche measurements and numerical simulations, we report the existence of a transition from sub-Rayleigh anticrack to supershear crack propagation. This transition follows the Burridge-Andrews mechanism, in which a supershear daughter crack nucleates ahead of the main fracture front and eventually propagates faster than the shear wave speed. Furthermore, we show that the supershear propagation regime can exist even if the shear-to-normal stress ratio is lower than the static friction coefficient as a result of the loss of frictional resistance during collapse. This finding shows that snow slab avalanches have fundamental similarities with strike-slip earthquakes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bertil Trottet
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ron Simenhois
- Colorado Avalanche Information Center, Boulder, CO USA
| | | | - Bastian Bergfeld
- WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
| | | | - Chenfanfu Jiang
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Johan Gaume
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
|
12
|
Abstract
Fault zones accommodate relative motion between tectonic blocks and control earthquake nucleation. Nanocrystalline fault rocks are ubiquitous in "principal slip zones" indicating that these materials are determining fault stability. However, the rheology of nanocrystalline fault rocks remains poorly constrained. Here, we show that such fault rocks are an order of magnitude weaker than their microcrystalline counterparts when deformed at identical experimental conditions. Weakening of the fault rocks is hence intrinsic, it occurs once nanocrystalline layers form. However, it is difficult to produce "rate weakening" behavior due to the low measured stress exponent, n, of 1.3 ± 0.4 and the low activation energy, Q, of 16,000 ± 14,000 J/mol implying that the material will be strongly "rate strengthening" with a weak temperature sensitivity. Failure of the fault zone nevertheless occurs once these weak layers coalesce in a kinematically favored network. This type of instability is distinct from the frictional instability used to describe crustal earthquakes.
Collapse
|
13
|
Jara J, Bruhat L, Thomas MY, Antoine SL, Okubo K, Rougier E, Rosakis AJ, Sammis CG, Klinger Y, Jolivet R, Bhat HS. Signature of transition to supershear rupture speed in the coseismic off-fault damage zone. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2021; 477:20210364. [PMID: 35153594 PMCID: PMC8595990 DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2021.0364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Most earthquake ruptures propagate at speeds below the shear wave velocity within the crust, but in some rare cases, ruptures reach supershear speeds. The physics underlying the transition of natural subshear earthquakes to supershear ones is currently not fully understood. Most observational studies of supershear earthquakes have focused on determining which fault segments sustain fully grown supershear ruptures. Experimentally cross-validated numerical models have identified some of the key ingredients required to trigger a transition to supershear speed. However, the conditions for such a transition in nature are still unclear, including the precise location of this transition. In this work, we provide theoretical and numerical insights to identify the precise location of such a transition in nature. We use fracture mechanics arguments with multiple numerical models to identify the signature of supershear transition in coseismic off-fault damage. We then cross-validate this signature with high-resolution observations of fault zone width and early aftershock distributions. We confirm that the location of the transition from subshear to supershear speed is characterized by a decrease in the width of the coseismic off-fault damage zone. We thus help refine the precise location of such a transition for natural supershear earthquakes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Jara
- Laboratoire de Géologie, Département de Géosciences, École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, UMR 8538, PSL Université, Paris, France
| | - Lucile Bruhat
- Laboratoire de Géologie, Département de Géosciences, École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, UMR 8538, PSL Université, Paris, France
| | - Marion Y. Thomas
- Institut des Sciences de la Terre de Paris, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, UMR 7193, Paris, France
| | - Solène L. Antoine
- Université de Paris, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris 75005, France
| | - Kurama Okubo
- National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, 3-1 Tennnodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0006, Japan
| | - Esteban Rougier
- EES-17–Earth and Environmental Sciences Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
| | - Ares J. Rosakis
- Graduate Aerospace Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Charles G. Sammis
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Yann Klinger
- Université de Paris, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris 75005, France
| | - Romain Jolivet
- Laboratoire de Géologie, Département de Géosciences, École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, UMR 8538, PSL Université, Paris, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, 1 rue Descartes, Paris 75005, France
| | - Harsha S. Bhat
- Laboratoire de Géologie, Département de Géosciences, École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, UMR 8538, PSL Université, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Passelègue FX, Almakari M, Dublanchet P, Barras F, Fortin J, Violay M. Initial effective stress controls the nature of earthquakes. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5132. [PMID: 33046700 PMCID: PMC7552404 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18937-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern geophysics highlights that the slip behaviour response of faults is variable in space and time and can result in slow or fast ruptures. However, the origin of this variation of the rupture velocity in nature as well as the physics behind it is still debated. Here, we first highlight how the different types of fault slip observed in nature appear to stem from the same physical mechanism. Second, we reproduce at the scale of the laboratory the complete spectrum of rupture velocities observed in nature. Our results show that the rupture velocity can range from a few millimetres to kilometres per second, depending on the available energy at the onset of slip, in agreement with theoretical predictions. This combined set of observations bring a new explanation of the dominance of slow rupture fronts in the shallow part of the crust or in areas suspected to present large fluid pressure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- François X Passelègue
- Laboratoire de Mécanique des Roches, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Michelle Almakari
- Centre de Géosciences, MINES ParisTECH, PSL Research University, Fontainebleau, France
| | - Pierre Dublanchet
- Centre de Géosciences, MINES ParisTECH, PSL Research University, Fontainebleau, France
| | - Fabian Barras
- The Njord Centre for Studies of the Physics of the Earth, University of Oslo, 0371, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jérôme Fortin
- École Normale Supérieure, UMR8538, 24 rue Lhomond, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marie Violay
- Laboratoire de Mécanique des Roches, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ghaffari HO, Pec M. An ultrasound probe array for a high-pressure, high-temperature solid medium deformation apparatus. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2020; 91:085117. [PMID: 32872942 DOI: 10.1063/5.0004035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Inelastic deformation of minerals and rocks is associated with activation of various defects such as fractures, twins, and dislocations. Active and passive ultrasound probes are potential tools to examine the nature of these defects under a broad range of pressure and temperature conditions. Here, we report on the development of an ultrasound probe array that allows us to monitor deforming samples in a high-pressure, high-temperature solid medium apparatus (a modified Griggs rig). We utilize several broadband miniature piezoelectric sensors that are placed above and below the sample to record acoustic emissions accompanying deformation and determine their locations in 1D. The emissions are recorded at 50 MS/s with a 12 bit resolution. Proper grounding and electric insulation of the sensors, together with optimized power delivery from the heating system, tremendously reduces electromagnetic interference and allows for a background noise level of ≈90 mV at a full range of ±2 V and 60 dB amplification. The system is capable of recording acoustic waves from 80 kHz to 2.5 MHz at sample temperatures up to 1100 °C and confining pressure up to 2.5 GPa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H O Ghaffari
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - M Pec
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Buijze L, Guo Y, Niemeijer AR, Ma S, Spiers CJ. Nucleation of Stick-Slip Instability Within a Large-Scale Experimental Fault: Effects of Stress Heterogeneities Due to Loading and Gouge Layer Compaction. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. SOLID EARTH 2020; 125:e2019JB018429. [PMID: 32999804 PMCID: PMC7507769 DOI: 10.1029/2019jb018429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Geodetic observations and large-scale laboratory experiments show that seismic instability is preceded by slow slip within a finite nucleation zone. In laboratory experiments rupture nucleation is studied mostly using bare (rock) interfaces, whereas upper crustal faults are typically filled with gouge. To investigate effects of gouge on rupture nucleation, we performed a biaxial shearing experiment on a 350 mm long saw-cut fault filled with gypsum gouge, at room temperature and a minimum horizontal stress σ 2 = 0.3-5 MPa. The gouge layer was sandwiched between polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) plates For reference also a fault without gouge was deformed. Strain gauges and Digital Image Correlation were used to monitor the deformation field along the fault zone margins. Stick-slip behavior occurred on both the gouge-filled fault and the PMMA fault. Nucleation of instability on the PMMA fault persistently occurred from one location 2/3 to 3/4 along the fault adjacent to a slow slip zone at the fault end, but nucleation on the gouge-filled fault was more variable, nucleating at the ends and/or at approximately 2/3 along the fault, with precursory slip occurring over a large fraction of the fault. Nucleation correlated to regions of high average fault stress ratio τ/σ n , which was more variable for the gouge-filled fault due to small length scale variations in normal stress caused by heterogeneous gouge compaction. Rupture velocities and slip rates were lower for the gouge-filled fault than for the bare PMMA fault. Stick-slip persisted when σ 2 was lowered and the nucleation zone length increased, expanding from the center to the sample ends before transitioning into instability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L. Buijze
- High Pressure Temperature Laboratory, Department of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
- Applied Geosciences, Energy Transition, TNOUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Y. Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Earthquake DynamicsInstitute of Geology, China Earthquake AdministrationBeijingChina
| | - A. R. Niemeijer
- High Pressure Temperature Laboratory, Department of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - S. Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Earthquake DynamicsInstitute of Geology, China Earthquake AdministrationBeijingChina
| | - C. J. Spiers
- High Pressure Temperature Laboratory, Department of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Yashiki T, Morita T, Sawae Y, Yamaguchi T. Subsonic to Intersonic Transition in Sliding Friction for Soft Solids. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 124:238001. [PMID: 32603159 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.124.238001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We perform friction experiments between a compliant gel and a rigid cylinder at sliding velocities comparable to the Rayleigh wave or secondary wave velocity of the gel. We find that, when the sliding velocity exceeds the wave velocities, the contact state transitions from Hertzian like to flat punch like, resulting in the breakdown of the lubricating oil film and the abrupt increase in the friction coefficient. We succeed in deriving theoretical solutions for the contact pressure distributions and the deformation profiles in the presence of friction, which are consistent with our experimental observations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Yashiki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Takehiro Morita
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Sawae
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Yamaguchi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
Frictional motion between contacting bodies is governed by propagating rupture fronts that are essentially earthquakes. These fronts break the contacts composing the interface separating the bodies to enable their relative motion. The most general type of frictional motion takes place when the two bodies are not identical. Within these so-called bimaterial interfaces, the onset of frictional motion is often mediated by highly localized rupture fronts, called slip pulses. Here, we show how this unique rupture mode develops, evolves, and changes the character of the interface's behavior. Bimaterial slip pulses initiate as "subshear" cracks (slower than shear waves) that transition to developed slip pulses where normal stresses almost vanish at their leading edge. The observed slip pulses propagate solely within a narrow range of "transonic" velocities, bounded between the shear wave velocity of the softer material and a limiting velocity. We derive analytic solutions for both subshear cracks and the leading edge of slip pulses. These solutions both provide an excellent description of our experimental measurements and quantitatively explain slip pulses' limiting velocities. We furthermore find that frictional coupling between local normal stress variations and frictional resistance actually promotes the interface separation that is critical for slip-pulse localization. These results provide a full picture of slip-pulse formation and structure that is important for our fundamental understanding of both earthquake motion and the most general types of frictional processes.
Collapse
|
19
|
Bera PK, Majumdar S, Ouillon G, Sornette D, Sood AK. Quantitative earthquake-like statistical properties of the flow of soft materials below yield stress. Nat Commun 2020; 11:9. [PMID: 31911596 PMCID: PMC6946698 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13790-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The flow behavior of soft materials below the yield stress can be rich and is not fully understood. Here, we report shear-stress-induced reorganization of three-dimensional solid-like soft materials formed by closely packed nematic domains of surfactant micelles and a repulsive Wigner glass formed by anisotropic clay nano-discs having ionic interactions. The creep response of both the systems below the yield stress results in angular velocity fluctuations of the shearing plate showing large temporal burst-like events that resemble seismic foreshocks-aftershocks data measuring the ground motion during earthquake avalanches. We find that the statistical properties of the quake events inside such a burst map on to the scaling relations for magnitude and frequency distribution of earthquakes, given by Gutenberg-Richter and Omori laws, and follow a power-law distribution of the inter-occurrence waiting time. In situ polarized optical microscopy reveals that during these events the system self-organizes to a much stronger solid-like state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P K Bera
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560012, India
| | - S Majumdar
- Raman Research Institute, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560080, India
| | - G Ouillon
- Lithophyse, 4 rue de l'Ancien Sénat, 06300, Nice, France
| | - D Sornette
- D-MTEC, and Department Physics and Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Scheuzerstrasse 7, CH-8092, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Risk Analysis Prediction and Management, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - A K Sood
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560012, India.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
de Geus TWJ, Popović M, Ji W, Rosso A, Wyart M. How collective asperity detachments nucleate slip at frictional interfaces. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:23977-23983. [PMID: 31699820 PMCID: PMC6883799 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1906551116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sliding at a quasi-statically loaded frictional interface can occur via macroscopic slip events, which nucleate locally before propagating as rupture fronts very similar to fracture. We introduce a microscopic model of a frictional interface that includes asperity-level disorder, elastic interaction between local slip events, and inertia. For a perfectly flat and homogeneously loaded interface, we find that slip is nucleated by avalanches of asperity detachments of extension larger than a critical radius [Formula: see text] governed by a Griffith criterion. We find that after slip, the density of asperities at a local distance to yielding [Formula: see text] presents a pseudogap [Formula: see text], where θ is a nonuniversal exponent that depends on the statistics of the disorder. This result makes a link between friction and the plasticity of amorphous materials where a pseudogap is also present. For friction, we find that a consequence is that stick-slip is an extremely slowly decaying finite-size effect, while the slip nucleation radius [Formula: see text] diverges as a θ-dependent power law of the system size. We discuss how these predictions can be tested experimentally.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom W J de Geus
- Institute of Physics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;
| | - Marko Popović
- Institute of Physics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Wencheng Ji
- Institute of Physics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alberto Rosso
- LPTMS, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Matthieu Wyart
- Institute of Physics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Lherminier S, Planet R, Vehel VLD, Simon G, Vanel L, Måløy KJ, Ramos O. Continuously Sheared Granular Matter Reproduces in Detail Seismicity Laws. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2019; 122:218501. [PMID: 31283309 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.122.218501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a shear experiment that quantitatively reproduces the main laws of seismicity. By continuously and slowly shearing a compressed monolayer of disks in a ringlike geometry, our system delivers events of frictional failures with energies following a Gutenberg-Richter law. Moreover, foreshocks and aftershocks are described by Omori laws and interevent times also follow exactly the same distribution as real earthquakes, showing the existence of memory of past events. Other features of real earthquakes qualitatively reproduced in our system are both the existence of a quiescence preceding some main shocks, as well as magnitude correlations linked to large quakes. The key ingredient of the dynamics is the nature of the force network, governing the distribution of frictional thresholds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Lherminier
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR5306 Université Lyon 1-CNRS, Université de Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - R Planet
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR5306 Université Lyon 1-CNRS, Université de Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - V Levy Dit Vehel
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR5306 Université Lyon 1-CNRS, Université de Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - G Simon
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR5306 Université Lyon 1-CNRS, Université de Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - L Vanel
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR5306 Université Lyon 1-CNRS, Université de Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - K J Måløy
- PoreLab, The Njord Centre, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1048, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - O Ramos
- Institut Lumière Matière, UMR5306 Université Lyon 1-CNRS, Université de Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Li Z, Pastewka L, Szlufarska I. Chemical aging of large-scale randomly rough frictional contacts. Phys Rev E 2018; 98:023001. [PMID: 30253579 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.98.023001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
It has been shown that contact aging due to chemical reactions in single asperity contacts can have a significant effect on friction. However, it is currently unknown how chemically induced contact aging of friction depends on roughness that is typically encountered in macroscopic rough contacts. Here we develop an approach that brings together a kinetic Monte Carlo model of chemical aging with a contact mechanics model of rough surfaces based on the boundary element method to determine the magnitude of chemical aging in silica-silica contacts with random roughness. Our multiscale model predicts that chemical aging for randomly rough contacts has a logarithmic dependence on time. It also shows that friction aging switches from a linear to a nonlinear dependence on the applied load as the load increase. We discover that surface roughness affects the aging behavior primarily by modifying the real contact area and the local contact pressure, whereas the effect of contact morphology is relatively small. Our results demonstrate how understanding of chemical aging can be translated from studies of single asperity contacts to macroscopic rough contacts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhuohan Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison 53706-1595, USA
| | - Lars Pastewka
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Izabela Szlufarska
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison 53706-1595, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Kammer DS, Svetlizky I, Cohen G, Fineberg J. The equation of motion for supershear frictional rupture fronts. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaat5622. [PMID: 30035229 PMCID: PMC6051736 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat5622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The rupture fronts that mediate the onset of frictional sliding may propagate at speeds below the Rayleigh wave speed or may surpass the shear wave speed and approach the longitudinal wave speed. While the conditions for the transition from sub-Rayleigh to supershear propagation have been studied extensively, little is known about what dictates supershear rupture speeds and how the interplay between the stresses that drive propagation and interface properties that resist motion affects them. By combining laboratory experiments and numerical simulations that reflect natural earthquakes, we find that supershear rupture propagation speeds can be predicted and described by a fracture mechanics-based equation of motion. This equation of motion quantitatively predicts rupture speeds, with the velocity selection dictated by the interface properties and stress. Our results reveal a critical rupture length, analogous to Griffith's length for sub-Rayleigh cracks, below which supershear propagation is impossible. Above this critical length, supershear ruptures can exist, once excited, even for extremely low preexisting stress levels. These results significantly improve our fundamental understanding of what governs the speed of supershear earthquakes, with direct and important implications for interpreting their unique supershear seismic radiation patterns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David S. Kammer
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Ilya Svetlizky
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Gil Cohen
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Jay Fineberg
- Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Barras F, Geubelle PH, Molinari JF. Interplay between Process Zone and Material Heterogeneities for Dynamic Cracks. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 119:144101. [PMID: 29053320 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.119.144101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Using an elastodynamic boundary integral formulation coupled with a cohesive model, we study the problem of a dynamic rupture front propagating along an heterogeneous plane. We show that small-scale heterogeneities facilitate the supershear transition of a mode-II crack. The elastic pulses radiated during front accelerations explain how microscopic variations of fracture toughness change the macroscopic rupture dynamics. Perturbations of dynamic fronts are then systematically studied with different microstructures and loading conditions. The process zone size is the intrinsic length scale controlling heterogeneous dynamic rupture. The ratio of this length scale to asperity size is proposed as an indicator to transition from quasihomogeneous to heterogeneous fracture. Moreover, we discuss how the shortening of the process zone size with increasing crack speed brings the front to interact with smaller details of the microstructure. This study shines new light on recent experiments reporting perturbations of dynamic rupture fronts, which intensify with crack propagation speed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Barras
- Civil Engineering Institute, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 18, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Philippe H Geubelle
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 306 Talbot Laboratory, 104 South Wright Street, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Jean-François Molinari
- Civil Engineering Institute, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 18, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Nielsen S. From slow to fast faulting: recent challenges in earthquake fault mechanics. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2017; 375:rsta.2016.0016. [PMID: 28827428 PMCID: PMC5580450 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Faults-thin zones of highly localized shear deformation in the Earth-accommodate strain on a momentous range of dimensions (millimetres to hundreds of kilometres for major plate boundaries) and of time intervals (from fractions of seconds during earthquake slip, to years of slow, aseismic slip and millions of years of intermittent activity). Traditionally, brittle faults have been distinguished from shear zones which deform by crystal plasticity (e.g. mylonites). However such brittle/plastic distinction becomes blurred when considering (i) deep earthquakes that happen under conditions of pressure and temperature where minerals are clearly in the plastic deformation regime (a clue for seismologists over several decades) and (ii) the extreme dynamic stress drop occurring during seismic slip acceleration on faults, requiring efficient weakening mechanisms. High strain rates (more than 104 s-1) are accommodated within paper-thin layers (principal slip zone), where co-seismic frictional heating triggers non-brittle weakening mechanisms. In addition, (iii) pervasive off-fault damage is observed, introducing energy sinks which are not accounted for by traditional frictional models. These observations challenge our traditional understanding of friction (rate-and-state laws), anelastic deformation (creep and flow of crystalline materials) and the scientific consensus on fault operation.This article is part of the themed issue 'Faulting, friction and weakening: from slow to fast motion'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Nielsen
- Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham DH1 5ED, UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Passelègue FX, Latour S, Schubnel A, Nielsen S, Bhat HS, Madariaga R. Influence of Fault Strength on Precursory Processes During Laboratory Earthquakes. FAULT ZONE DYNAMIC PROCESSES 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119156895.ch12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- François. X. Passelègue
- Laboratoire de Géologie; CNRS, École Normale Supérieure; Paris France
- University of Manchester; Manchester UK
| | - Soumaya Latour
- Laboratoire de Géologie; CNRS, École Normale Supérieure; Paris France
| | | | | | | | - Raúl Madariaga
- Laboratoire de Géologie; CNRS, École Normale Supérieure; Paris France
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Lockner DA, Kilgore BD, Beeler NM, Moore DE. The Transition From Frictional Sliding to Shear Melting in Laboratory Stick-Slip Experiments. FAULT ZONE DYNAMIC PROCESSES 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119156895.ch6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nicholas M. Beeler
- U.S. Geological Survey; Menlo Park California USA
- USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory; Vancouver Washington USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Svetlizky I, Kammer DS, Bayart E, Cohen G, Fineberg J. Brittle Fracture Theory Predicts the Equation of Motion of Frictional Rupture Fronts. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 118:125501. [PMID: 28388201 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.118.125501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
We study rupture fronts propagating along the interface separating two bodies at the onset of frictional motion via high-temporal-resolution measurements of the real contact area and strain fields. The strain measurements provide the energy flux and dissipation at the rupture tips. We show that the classical equation of motion for brittle shear cracks, derived by balancing these quantities, well describes the velocity evolution of frictional ruptures. Our results demonstrate the extensive applicability of the dynamic brittle fracture theory to friction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilya Svetlizky
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - David S Kammer
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Elsa Bayart
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Gil Cohen
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Jay Fineberg
- The Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
The structure of slip-pulses and supershear ruptures driving slip in bimaterial friction. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11787. [PMID: 27278687 PMCID: PMC4906223 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The most general frictional motion in nature involves bimaterial interfaces, when contacting bodies possess different elastic properties. Frictional motion occurs when the contacts composing the interface separating these bodies detach via propagating rupture fronts. Coupling between slip and normal stress variations is unique to bimaterial interfaces. Here we use high speed simultaneous measurements of slip velocities, real contact area and stresses to explicitly reveal this bimaterial coupling and its role in determining different classes of rupture modes and their structures. We directly observe slip-pulses, highly localized slip accompanied by large local reduction of the normal stress near the rupture tip. These pulses propagate in the direction of motion of the softer material at a selected (maximal) velocity and continuously evolve while propagating. In the opposite direction bimaterial coupling favors crack-like ‘supershear' fronts. The robustness of these structures shows the importance of bimaterial coupling to frictional motion and modes of frictional dissipation. Friction commonly involves different material types (bimaterials) at their sliding interface. Here, in laboratory experiments Shlomai and Fineberg reveal effects uniquely due to biomaterial coupling, with slip-pulses and crack-like supershear fronts dominating opposing propagation directions.
Collapse
|
30
|
Leeman JR, Saffer DM, Scuderi MM, Marone C. Laboratory observations of slow earthquakes and the spectrum of tectonic fault slip modes. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11104. [PMID: 27029996 PMCID: PMC4821871 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Slow earthquakes represent an important conundrum in earthquake physics. While regular earthquakes are catastrophic events with rupture velocities governed by elastic wave speed, the processes that underlie slow fault slip phenomena, including recent discoveries of tremor, slow-slip and low-frequency earthquakes, are less understood. Theoretical models and sparse laboratory observations have provided insights, but the physics of slow fault rupture remain enigmatic. Here we report on laboratory observations that illuminate the mechanics of slow-slip phenomena. We show that a spectrum of slow-slip behaviours arises near the threshold between stable and unstable failure, and is governed by frictional dynamics via the interplay of fault frictional properties, effective normal stress and the elastic stiffness of the surrounding material. This generalizable frictional mechanism may act in concert with other hypothesized processes that damp dynamic ruptures, and is consistent with the broad range of geologic environments where slow earthquakes are observed. Slow earthquakes, where fault slip is slow, can be large and may help trigger regular earthquakes, but the mechanics of slow slip are not fully understood. Leeman et al. show through laboratory experiments that slow slip behaviour on faults is controlled by the frictional dynamics of the surrounding material.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J R Leeman
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, 522 Deike Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - D M Saffer
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, 522 Deike Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - M M Scuderi
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, 522 Deike Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.,Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome Italy
| | - C Marone
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, 522 Deike Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Ghaffari HO, Griffth WA, Benson PM, Xia K, Young RP. Observation of the Kibble-Zurek Mechanism in Microscopic Acoustic Crackling Noises. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21210. [PMID: 26876156 PMCID: PMC4753415 DOI: 10.1038/srep21210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Characterizing the fast evolution of microstructural defects is key to understanding "crackling" phenomena during the deformation of solid materials. For example, it has been proposed using atomistic simulations of crack propagation in elastic materials that the formation of a nonlinear hyperelastic or plastic zone around moving crack tips controls crack velocity. To date, progress in understanding the physics of this critical zone has been limited due to the lack of data describing the complex physical processes that operate near microscopic crack tips. We show, by analyzing many acoustic emission events during rock deformation experiments, that the signature of this nonlinear zone maps directly to crackling noises. In particular, we characterize a weakening zone that forms near the moving crack tips using functional networks, and we determine the scaling law between the formation of damages (defects) and the traversal rate across the critical point of transition. Moreover, we show that the correlation length near the transition remains effectively frozen. This is the main underlying hypothesis behind the Kibble-Zurek mechanism (KZM) and the obtained power-law scaling verifies the main prediction of KZM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H O Ghaffari
- University of Texas at Arlington, 500 Yates St. Arlington, TX 76019
| | - W A Griffth
- University of Texas at Arlington, 500 Yates St. Arlington, TX 76019
| | - P M Benson
- Rock Mechanics Laboratory, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Burnaby building, Portsmouth, PO1 3QL, UK
| | - K Xia
- Department of Civil Engineering and Lassonde Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, 170 College Street, M5s3e3, On, Canada
| | - R P Young
- Department of Civil Engineering and Lassonde Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, 170 College Street, M5s3e3, On, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Properties of the shear stress peak radiated ahead of rapidly accelerating rupture fronts that mediate frictional slip. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:542-7. [PMID: 26729877 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1517545113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We study rapidly accelerating rupture fronts at the onset of frictional motion by performing high-temporal-resolution measurements of both the real contact area and the strain fields surrounding the propagating rupture tip. We observe large-amplitude and localized shear stress peaks that precede rupture fronts and propagate at the shear-wave speed. These localized stress waves, which retain a well-defined form, are initiated during the rapid rupture acceleration phase. They transport considerable energy and are capable of nucleating a secondary supershear rupture. The amplitude of these localized waves roughly scales with the dynamic stress drop and does not decrease as long as the rupture front driving it continues to propagate. Only upon rupture arrest does decay initiate, although the stress wave both continues to propagate and retains its characteristic form. These experimental results are qualitatively described by a self-similar model: a simplified analytical solution of a suddenly expanding shear crack. Quantitative agreement with experiment is provided by realistic finite-element simulations that demonstrate that the radiated stress waves are strongly focused in the direction of the rupture front propagation and describe both their amplitude growth and spatial scaling. Our results demonstrate the extensive applicability of brittle fracture theory to fundamental understanding of friction. Implications for earthquake dynamics are discussed.
Collapse
|
33
|
Supershear Earthquake Ruptures – Theory, Methods, Laboratory Experiments and Fault Superhighways: An Update. PERSPECTIVES ON EUROPEAN EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING AND SEISMOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-16964-4_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
|
34
|
Faulting of rocks in a three-dimensional stress field by micro-anticracks. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5011. [PMID: 24862447 PMCID: PMC4034368 DOI: 10.1038/srep05011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleation and propagation of a shear fault is known to be the result of interaction and coalescence of many microcracks. Yet the character and rate of the microcracks' interactions, and their dependence on the three-dimensional stress state are poorly understood. Here we investigate formation of microcracks during sandstone faulting under 3D-polyaxial stress fields by analyzing multi-stationary acoustic waveforms. We show that in a true three-dimensional stress state (a) faulting forms in a orthorhombic pattern, and (b) the emitted acoustic waveforms from microcracking carry a shorter rapid slip phase. The later is associated with microcracking that dominantly develops parallel to the minimum stress direction. Our results imply that due to inducing the micro-anticracks, the three-dimensional (3D) stress state can quicken dynamic weakening and rupture propagation by a factor of two relatively to simpler stress states. The results suggest a new nucleation mechanism of 3D-faulting with implications for earthquakes' instabilities, as well as the understanding of avalanches associated with dislocations.
Collapse
|
35
|
Svetlizky I, Fineberg J. Classical shear cracks drive the onset of dry frictional motion. Nature 2014; 509:205-8. [DOI: 10.1038/nature13202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
36
|
Schubnel A, Brunet F, Hilairet N, Gasc J, Wang Y, Green HW. Deep-focus earthquake analogs recorded at high pressure and temperature in the laboratory. Science 2013; 341:1377-80. [PMID: 24052305 DOI: 10.1126/science.1240206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Phase transformations of metastable olivine might trigger deep-focus earthquakes (400 to 700 kilometers) in cold subducting lithosphere. To explore the feasibility of this mechanism, we performed laboratory deformation experiments on germanium olivine (Mg2GeO4) under differential stress at high pressure (P = 2 to 5 gigapascals) and within a narrow temperature range (T = 1000 to 1250 kelvin). We found that fractures nucleate at the onset of the olivine-to-spinel transition. These fractures propagate dynamically (at a nonnegligible fraction of the shear wave velocity) so that intense acoustic emissions are generated. Similar to deep-focus earthquakes, these acoustic emissions arise from pure shear sources and obey the Gutenberg-Richter law without following Omori's law. Microstructural observations prove that dynamic weakening likely involves superplasticity of the nanocrystalline spinel reaction product at seismic strain rates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Schubnel
- Laboratoire de Géologie, CNRS UMR 8538, Ecole Normale Supérieure, 75005 Paris, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|