Marginal reduction in surface NO2 attributable to airport shutdown: A machine learning regression-based approach

Emissions from aviation and airport-related activities degrade surface air quality but received limited attention relative to regular transportation sectors like road traffic and waterborne vessels. Statistically, assessing the impact of airport-related emissions remains a challenge due to the fact that its signal in the air quality time series data is largely dwarfed by meteorology and other emissions. Flight-ban policy has been implemented in a number of cities in response to the COVID-19 spread since early 2020, which provides an unprecedented opportunity to examine the changes in air quality attributable to airport closure. It would also be interesting to know whether such an intervention produces extra marginal air quality benefits, in addition to road traffic. Here we investigated the impact of airport-related emissions from a civil airport on nearby NO₂ air quality by applying machine learning predictive model to observational data collected from this unique quasi-natural experiment. The whole lockdown-attributable change in NO₂ was 16.7 μg/m³, equals to a drop of 73% in NO₂ with respect to the business-as-usual level. Meanwhile, the airport flight-ban aviation-attributable NO₂ was 3.1 μg/m³, accounting for a marginal reduction of 18.6% of the overall NO₂ change that driven by the whole lockdown effect. The airport-related emissions contributed up to 24% of the local ambient NO₂ under normal conditions. Additionally, the average impact of airport-related emissions on the nearby air quality was ∼0.01 ± 0.001 μg/m³ NO₂ per air-flight. Our results highlight that attention needs to be paid to such a considerable emission source in many places where regular air quality regulatory measures were insufficient to bring NO₂ concentration into compliance with the health-based limit.

Sustainable Supersonic Fuel Flow Method: An Evolution of the Boeing Fuel Flow Method for Supersonic Aircraft Using Sustainable Aviation Fuels

This paper discloses a new algorithm, called sustainable supersonic fuel flow method, to complement the conceptual design of future supersonic aircraft with pollutant and greenhouse gases emissions estimation. Starting from already existing algorithms currently used to assess the environmental impact of already developed and operating aircraft, the authors suggest revisions to improve the formulations, thus extending their application. Specifically, this paper has two objectives: to support the design of future supersonic aircraft and to evaluate the impact of the exploitation of more sustainable aviation fuels, with special focus on biofuels and biofuel blends, since the conceptual design stage. The core of the algorithm developed to predict in-flight emissions of a supersonic aircraft has been validated with public data of Concorde flight experiments. In addition, corrective factors accounting for the most recently developed and certified biofuels have been included in the formulation.

Heterogeneous Chemistry of CaCO3 Aerosols with HNO3 and HCl

Calcite (CaCO₃) aerosols often serve as an idealized proxy for calcium-rich mineral dust. Their use has also previously been proposed for stratospheric solar radiation management (SSRM). Little is known about the heterogeneous chemistry of calcite aerosols with trace gases HNO₃ and HCl and therefore their potential impact on stratospheric ozone (O₃). Here we report the results of an experimental study of the uptake of HNO₃ and HCl onto submicron CaCO₃ particles in two different flow reactors. Products and reaction kinetics were observed by impacting aerosolized CaCO₃ onto ZnSe windows, exposing them to the reagent gases at a wide range of concentrations, at 296 K and under dry conditions, and analyzing the particles before and after trace gas exposure using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). A Ca(OH)(HCO₃) termination layer was detected in the form of a HCO₃^- peak in the FTIR spectra, indicating a hydrated surface even under dry conditions. The results demonstrate the reaction of HNO₃ with Ca(OH)(HCO₃) to produce Ca(NO₃)₂, water, and CO₂. HCl reacted with Ca(OH)(HCO₃) to produce CaCl₂ and also water and CO₂. The depletion of the Ca(OH)(HCO₃)/Ca(CO₃) signal due to reaction with HNO₃ or HCl followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. From the FTIR analysis, the reactive uptake coefficient for HNO₃ was determined to be in the range of 0.013 ≤ γ_HNO3 ≤ 0.14, and that for HCl was 0.0011 ≤ γ_HCl ≤ 0.012 within the reported uncertainty. The reaction of HCl with airborne CaCO₃ aerosols was also studied in an aerosol flow tube coupled with a quadrupole chemical ionization mass spectrometer (CIMS) under similar conditions to the FTIR study, and γ_HCl was determined to be 0.013 ± 0.001. Following previous modeling studies, these results suggest that the reactions of HCl and HNO₃ with calcite in the stratosphere could ameliorate the potential for stratospheric solar radiation management to lead to stratospheric ozone depletion.

Stratospheric controlled perturbation experiment: a small-scale experiment to improve understanding of the risks of solar geoengineering

Although solar radiation management (SRM) through stratospheric aerosol methods has the potential to mitigate impacts of climate change, our current knowledge of stratospheric processes suggests that these methods may entail significant risks. In addition to the risks associated with current knowledge, the possibility of 'unknown unknowns' exists that could significantly alter the risk assessment relative to our current understanding. While laboratory experimentation can improve the current state of knowledge and atmospheric models can assess large-scale climate response, they cannot capture possible unknown chemistry or represent the full range of interactive atmospheric chemical physics. Small-scale, in situ experimentation under well-regulated circumstances can begin to remove some of these uncertainties. This experiment-provisionally titled the stratospheric controlled perturbation experiment-is under development and will only proceed with transparent and predominantly governmental funding and independent risk assessment. We describe the scientific and technical foundation for performing, under external oversight, small-scale experiments to quantify the risks posed by SRM to activation of halogen species and subsequent erosion of stratospheric ozone. The paper's scope includes selection of the measurement platform, relevant aspects of stratospheric meteorology, operational considerations and instrument design and engineering.

Aircraft engine exhaust emissions and other airport-related contributions to ambient air pollution: A review

Civil aviation is fast-growing (about +5% every year), mainly driven by the developing economies and globalisation. Its impact on the environment is heavily debated, particularly in relation to climate forcing attributed to emissions at cruising altitudes and the noise and the deterioration of air quality at ground-level due to airport operations. This latter environmental issue is of particular interest to the scientific community and policymakers, especially in relation to the breach of limit and target values for many air pollutants, mainly nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, near the busiest airports and the resulting consequences for public health. Despite the increased attention given to aircraft emissions at ground-level and air pollution in the vicinity of airports, many research gaps remain. Sources relevant to air quality include not only engine exhaust and non-exhaust emissions from aircraft, but also emissions from the units providing power to the aircraft on the ground, the traffic due to the airport ground service, maintenance work, heating facilities, fugitive vapours from refuelling operations, kitchens and restaurants for passengers and operators, intermodal transportation systems, and road traffic for transporting people and goods in and out to the airport. Many of these sources have received inadequate attention, despite their high potential for impact on air quality. This review aims to summarise the state-of-the-art research on aircraft and airport emissions and attempts to synthesise the results of studies that have addressed this issue. It also aims to describe the key characteristics of pollution, the impacts upon global and local air quality and to address the future potential of research by highlighting research needs.

Aircraft hydrocarbon emissions at Oakland International Airport

To help airports improve emission inventory data, speciated hydrocarbon emission indices have been measured from in-use commercial, airfreight, and general aviation aircraft at Oakland International Airport. The compounds reported here include formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, ethene, propene, and benzene. At idle, the magnitude of hydrocarbon emission indices was variable and reflected differences in engine technology, actual throttle setting, and ambient temperature. Scaling the measured emission indices to the simultaneously measured formaldehyde (HCHO) emission index eliminated most of the observed variability. This result supports a uniform hydrocarbon emissions profile across engine types when the engine is operating near idle, which can greatly simplify how speciated hydrocarbons are handled in emission inventories. The magnitude of the measured hydrocarbon emission index observed in these measurements (ambient temperature range 12-22 degrees C) is a factor of 1.5-2.2 times larger than the certification benchmarks. Using estimates of operational fuel flow rates at idle, this analysis suggests that current emission inventories at the temperatures encountered at this airport underestimate hydrocarbon emissions from the idle phase of operation by 16-45%.

An overview of geoengineering of climate using stratospheric sulphate aerosols

We provide an overview of geoengineering by stratospheric sulphate aerosols. The state of understanding about this topic as of early 2008 is reviewed, summarizing the past 30 years of work in the area, highlighting some very recent studies using climate models, and discussing methods used to deliver sulphur species to the stratosphere. The studies reviewed here suggest that sulphate aerosols can counteract the globally averaged temperature increase associated with increasing greenhouse gases, and reduce changes to some other components of the Earth system. There are likely to be remaining regional climate changes after geoengineering, with some regions experiencing significant changes in temperature or precipitation. The aerosols also serve as surfaces for heterogeneous chemistry resulting in increased ozone depletion. The delivery of sulphur species to the stratosphere in a way that will produce particles of the right size is shown to be a complex and potentially very difficult task. Two simple delivery scenarios are explored, but similar exercises will be needed for other suggested delivery mechanisms. While the introduction of the geoengineering source of sulphate aerosol will perturb the sulphur cycle of the stratosphere signicantly, it is a small perturbation to the total (stratosphere and troposphere) sulphur cycle. The geoengineering source would thus be a small contributor to the total global source of 'acid rain' that could be compensated for through improved pollution control of anthropogenic tropospheric sources. Some areas of research remain unexplored. Although ozone may be depleted, with a consequent increase to solar ultraviolet-B (UVB) energy reaching the surface and a potential impact on health and biological populations, the aerosols will also scatter and attenuate this part of the energy spectrum, and this may compensate the UVB enhancement associated with ozone depletion. The aerosol will also change the ratio of diffuse to direct energy reaching the surface, and this may influence ecosystems. The impact of geoengineering on these components of the Earth system has not yet been studied. Representations for the formation, evolution and removal of aerosol and distribution of particle size are still very crude, and more work will be needed to gain confidence in our understanding of the deliberate production of this class of aerosols and their role in the climate system.

Hydrocarbon emissions from in-use commercial aircraft during airport operations

The emissions of selected hydrocarbons from in-use commercial aircraft at a major airport in the United States were characterized using proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) and tunable infrared differential absorption spectroscopy (TILDAS) to probe the composition of diluted exhaust plumes downwind. The emission indices for formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, benzene, and toluene, as well as other hydrocarbon species, were determined through analysis of 45 intercepted plumes identified as being associated with specific aircraft. As would have been predicted for high bypass turbine engines, the hydrocarbon emission index was greater in idle and taxiway acceleration plumes relative to approach and takeoff plumes. The opposite was seen in total NOy emission index, which increased from idle to takeoff. Within the idle plumes sampled in this study, the median emission index for formaldehyde was 1.1 g of HCHO per kg of fuel. For the subset of hydrocarbons measured in this work, the idle emissions levels relative to formaldehyde agree well with those of previous studies. The projected total unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) deduced from the range of in-use idle plumes analyzed in this work is greater than a plausible range of engine types using the defined idle condition (7% of rated engine thrust) in the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) databank reference.

Efficient Low-Temperature Oxidation of Carbon-Cluster Anions by SO2

Carbon-cluster anions, CN-, are very reactive toward SO2 (sticking probability of 0.012 +/- 0.005 for C27- at 25 degrees C), in contrast to their inertness toward other common atmospheric gases and pollutants. In flow reactor experiments at ambient temperature and near atmospheric pressure, primary adsorption of SO2 by the carbon cluster anions, N = 4-60, yields CNSO2- or CN-1S-. The inferred elimination of neutral CO2 is also detected as meta-stable decay in collision-induced dissociation. At higher temperatures, the reaction of SO2 with nascent carbon clusters yields CN-1SO- as well as undetected CO. The size-dependent initial reactivity reflects the previously established structural transitions (i.e., from chain to cyclic to cage structures). Such carbon clusters are formed in sooting flames and may act as nuclei for the formation of primary soot particles and serve as models for the local structural features of active soot particle sites for black-carbon soot. The facile generation of reactive carbon-sulfide and -sulfinate units may therefore have implications for understanding the health and environmental effects attributed to the coincidence of soot and SO2.

NO and NO2 emission ratios measured from in-use commercial aircraft during taxi and takeoff

In August 2001, the Aerodyne Mobile Laboratory simultaneously measured NO, NO2, and CO2 within 350 m of a taxiway and 550 m of a runway at John F. Kennedy Airport. The meteorological conditions were such that taxi and takeoff plumes from individual aircraft were clearly resolved against background levels. NO and NO2 concentrations were measured with 1 s time resolution using a dual tunable infrared laser differential absorption spectroscopy instrument, utilizing an astigmatic multipass Herriott cell. The CO2 measurements were also obtained at 1 s time resolution using a commercial non-dispersive infrared absorption instrument. Plumes were measured from over 30 individual planes, ranging from turbo props to jumbo jets. NOx emission indices were determined by examining the correlation between NOx (NO + NO2) and CO2 during the plume measurements. Several aircraft tail numbers were unambiguously identified, allowing those specific airframe/engine combinations to be determined. The resulting NOx emission indices from positively identified in-service operating airplanes are compared with the published International Civil Aviation Organization engine certification test database collected on new engines in certification test cells.

Nanoliter-volume 1H NMR detection using periodic stopped-flow capillary electrophoresis

Recent advances in the analysis of nanoliter volumes using 1H NMR microcoils have led to the application of microcoils as detectors for capillary electrophoresis (CE). Custom NMR probes consisting of 1-mm-long solenoidal microcoils are fabricated from 50-micron diameter wire wrapped around capillaries to create nanoliter-volume detection cells. For geometries in which the capillary and static magnetic field are not parallel, the electrophoretic current induces a magnetic field gradient which degrades the spectroscopic information obtainable from CE/NMR. To reduce this effect and allow longer analyte observation times, the electrophoretic voltage is periodically interrupted so that 1-min high-resolution NMR spectra are obtained for every 15 s of applied voltage. The limits of detection (LODs; based on S/N = 3) for CE/NMR for arginine are 57 ng (330 pmol; 31 mM) and for triethylamine (TEA) are 9 ng (88 pmol; 11 mM). Field-amplified stacking is used for sample preconcentration. As one example, a 290-nL injection of a mixture of arginine and TEA both at 50 mM (15 nmol of each injected) is stacked severalfold for improved concentration LODs while achieving a separation efficiency greater than 50,000. Dissolving a sample in a mixture of 10% H2O/90% D2O allows H2O to serve as the nearly ideal neutral tracer and allows direct observation of the parabolic and flat flow profiles associated with gravimetric and electrokinetic injection, respectively. The unique capabilities of CE and the rich spectral information provided by NMR spectroscopy combine to yield a valuable analytical tool, especially in the study of mass-limited samples.

In situ measurements of organics, meteoritic material, mercury, and other elements in aerosols at 5 to 19 kilometers

In situ measurements of the chemical composition of individual aerosol particles at altitudes between 5 and 19 kilometers reveal that upper tropospheric aerosols often contained more organic material than sulfate. Although stratospheric aerosols primarily consisted of sulfuric acid and water, many also contained meteoritic material. Just above the tropopause, small amounts of mercury were found in over half of the aerosol particles that were analyzed. Overall, there was tremendous variety in aerosol composition. One measure of this diversity is that at least 45 elements were detected in aerosol particles. These results have wide implications for the complexity of aerosol sources and chemistry. They also offer possibilities for understanding the transport of atmospheric aerosols.

High-resolution microcoil NMR for analysis of mass-limited, nanoliter samples

An improved nanoliter-volume NMR probe design places the microcoil and capillary at the magic angle (57.7 degrees) with respect to the external magnetic field. Using an NMR probe which requires a total sample volume of just 200 nL, high-resolution 300-MHz 1H-NMR spectra (line width, 0.6 Hz) are presented of 10 mM alpha-bag cell peptide for an observe quantity of 45 ng (50 pmol in 5 nL). For the volume of sample inside the microcoil (the observe volume, Vobs), the 3 sigma limit of detection (LOD) is 9 ng (10 pmol, 2mM) for data obtained in 15 h. To reduce the data acquisition time, a probe with a greater Vobs is developed. As an example of a rapid, mass-limited analysis, a concentration corresponding to 400 ng of menthol dissolved in Vobs = 31 nL (82.6 mM) yields a spectrum in 9 min (LOD = 6.9 ng, 44 pmol, 1.4 mM). To illustrate improvements in concentration sensitivity, a spectrum is acquired in 45 min for 400 ng of menthol dissolved in a total sample volume of 200 nL (12.8 mM). Compared to a commercial nanoprobe for the same mass of menthol, these two examples reduce data acquisition time by at least 95%. Both model compounds demonstrate substantially improved concentration LODs compared to those obtained in previous high-resolution, microcoil NMR work. These advances illustrate the utility of enhanced sensitivity provided by NMR microcoils applied to nanoliter volumes of mass-limited samples.

Analysis of aircraft exhausts with Fourier-transform infrared emission spectroscopy

Because of the worldwide growth in air traffic and its increasing effects on the atmospheric environment, it is necessary to quantify the direct aircraft emissions at all altitudes. In this study Fourier-transform infrared emission spectroscopy as a remote-sensing multi-component-analyzing technique for aircraft exhausts was investigated at ground level with a double pendulum interferometer and a line-by-line computer algorithm that was applied to a multilayer radiative transfer problem. Initial measurements were made to specify the spectral windows for traceable compounds, to test the sensitivity of the system, and to develop calibration and continuum handling procedures. To obtain information about the radial temperature and concentration profiles, we developed an algorithm for the analysis of an axial-symmetric multilayered plume by use of the CO(2) hot band at approximately 2400 cm(-1). Measurements were made with several in-service engines. Effects that were due to engine aging were detected but have to be analyzed systematically in the near future. Validation measurements were carried out with a conventional propane gas burner to compare the results with those obtained with standard measurement equipment. These measurements showed good agreement to within +/-20% for the CO and NO(x) results. The overall accuracy of the system was found to be +/-30%. The detection limits of the system for a typical engine plume (380 degrees C, ? = 50 cm) are below 0.1% for CO(2), ~0.7% for H(2)O, ~20 ppmv (parts per million by volume) for CO, and ~90 ppmv for NO.