The HIF-1 alpha-C/EBP alpha axis

Hypoxia signalling in the regulation of innate immune training

Innate immune function is shaped by prior exposures in a phenomenon often referred to as 'memory' or 'training'. Diverse stimuli, ranging from pathogen-associated molecules to atherogenic lipoproteins, induce long-lasting training, impacting on future responses, even to distinct stimuli. It is now recognised that epigenetic modifications in innate immune cells, and their progenitors, underpin these sustained behavioural changes, and that rewired cellular metabolism plays a key role in facilitating such epigenetic marks. Oxygen is central to cellular metabolism, and cells exposed to hypoxia undergo profound metabolic rewiring. A central effector of these responses are the hypoxia inducible factors (or HIFs), which drive transcriptional programmes aiming to adapt cellular homeostasis, such as by increasing glycolysis. These metabolic shifts indirectly promote post-translational modification of the DNA-binding histone proteins, and also of DNA itself, which are retained even after cellular oxygen tension and metabolism normalise, chronically altering DNA accessibility and utilisation. Notably, the activity of HIFs can be induced in some normoxic circumstances, indicating their broad importance to cell biology, irrespective of oxygen tension. Some HIFs are implicated in innate immune training and hypoxia is present in many disease states, yet many questions remain about the association between hypoxia and training, both in health and disease. Moreover, it is now appreciated that cellular responses to hypoxia are mediated by non-HIF pathways, suggesting that other mechanisms of training may be possible. This review sets out to define what is already known about the topic, address gaps in our knowledge, and provide recommendations for future research.

Long non-coding RNA histone deacetylase 4 antisense RNA 1 (HDAC4-AS1) inhibits HDAC4 expression in human ARPE-19 cells with hypoxic stress

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is resulted from choroidal neovascularization (CNV)-mediated cicatrization and vision loss. The sustained retinal hypoxia in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells was reported to contribute to CNV. However, the underlying genetic regulatory network of hypoxia response in RPE is not fully understood. In this study, human ARPE-19 RPE cells were cultured under the anoxia for 24 h and later re-oxygenated in normoxia. Then the transcriptome was investigated via high throughput sequencing. We observed that long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) histone deacetylase 4 antisense RNA 1 (HDAC4-AS1) was increased in hypoxic condition compared to normal control and decreased after re-oxygenation addition, while the change of HDAC4 expression was reduced in hypoxic condition compared to normal control and up-regulated after re-oxygenation addition in ARPE-19 cells. Furthermore, HDAC4-AS1 knockdown could suppress the transcription activity of HDAC4 only in hypoxia condition, and fluorescence in situ hybridization and pull down assay indicated that transcripts of HDAC4-AS1 could substantially bind to the promoter of HDAC4 and facilitate the recruitment of HIF-1α. Finally, we also determined the specific regions of HDAC4-AS1 that contribute to the interaction with HIF-1α and the promoter of HDAC4. Taken together, these outcomes declared that HDAC4-AS1 could inhibit HDAC4 expression through regulating HIF-1α in human ARPE-19 cells with hypoxic stress.

The role of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 in tumor immune evasion

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) plays an indispensable role in the hypoxic tumor microenvironment. Hypoxia and HIF-1 are involved in multiple aspects of tumor progression, such as metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune evasion. In innate and adaptive immune systems, malignant tumor cells avoid their recognition and destruction by HIF-1. Tumor immune evasion allows cancer cells to proliferate and metastasize and is associated with immunotherapy failure and chemoresistance. In the hypoxic tumor microenvironment, HIF-1 signaling suppresses the innate and adaptive immune systems to evade immune attack by inducing the expression of immunosuppressive factors and immune checkpoint molecules, including vascular endothelial growth factor, prostaglandin E₂ , and programmed death-ligand 1/programmed death-1. Moreover, HIF-1 blocks tumor-associated antigen presentation via major histocompatibility complex class I chain-related/natural killer group 2, member D signaling. Tumor-associated autophagy and the release of tumor-derived exosomes contribute to HIF-1-mediated immune evasion. This review focuses on recent findings on the potential mechanism(s) underlying the effect of hypoxia and HIF-1 signaling on tumor immune evasion in the hypoxic tumor microenvironment. The effects of HIF-1 on immune checkpoint molecules, immunosuppressive molecules, autophagy, and exosomes have been described. Additionally, the potential role of HIF-1 in the regulation of tumor-derived exosomes, as well as the roles of HIF-1 and exosomes in tumor evasion, are discussed. This study will contribute to our understanding of HIF-1-mediated tumor immune evasion, leading to the development of effective HIF-1-targeting drugs and immunotherapies.

Semi-synthetic sapogenin exerts neuroprotective effects by skewing the brain ischemia reperfusion transcriptome towards inflammatory resolution

Stroke represents one of the first causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. We evaluated the therapeutic potential of a novel semi-synthetic spirosteroid sapogenin derivative "S15" in a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) focal ischemia model in rat. S15-treated rats had significantly reduced infarct volumes and improved neurological functions at 24h post-reperfusion, compared with ischemia. Corresponding gene expression changes in brain were characterized by mRNA sequencing and qPCR approaches. Next, we applied geneset, pathway and transcription factor motif enrichment analysis to identify relevant signaling networks responsible for neuronal damage upon ischemia-reperfusion or neuroprotection upon pretreatment with S15. As expected, ischemia-reperfusion brain damage strongly modulates transcriptional programs associated with immune responses, increased differentiation of immune cells as well as reduced (cat)ion transport and synaptic activity. Interestingly, S15-dependent neuroprotection regulates inflammation-associated genes involved in phagosome specific resolution of tissue damage, chemotaxis and anti-inflammatory alternative activation of microglia. Altogether our transcriptome wide RNA sequencing and integrated pathway analysis provides new clues in the neuroprotective properties of a novel spirosteroid S15 or neuronal damage in rat brains subjected to ischemia, which opens new perspectives for successful treatment of stroke.

miR-223-IGF-IR signalling in hypoxia- and load-induced right-ventricular failure: a novel therapeutic approach

AIMS

Pulmonary hypertension is a progressive disease with poor prognosis, characterized by pathological inward remodelling and loss of patency of the lung vasculature. The right ventricle is co-affected by pulmonary hypertension, which triggers events such as hypoxia and/or increased mechanical load. Initially the right ventricle responds with 'adaptive' hypertrophy, which is often rapidly followed by 'maladaptive' changes leading to right heart decompensation and failure, which is the ultimate cause of death.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We report here that miR-223 is expressed in the murine lung and right ventricle at higher levels than in the left ventricle. Moreover, lung and right-ventricular miR-223 levels were markedly down-regulated by hypoxia. Correspondingly, increasing right-ventricular load by pulmonary artery banding, induced right-ventricular ischaemia, and the down-regulation of miR-223. Lung and right ventricle miR-223 down-regulation were linked with increased expression of the miR-223 target; insulin-like growth factor-I receptor (IGF-IR) and IGF-I downstream signalling. Similarly, miR-223 was decreased and IGF-IR increased in human pulmonary hypertension. Notably in young mice, miR-223 overexpression, the genetic inactivation or pharmacological inhibition of IGF-IR, all attenuated right-ventricular hypertrophy and improved right heart function under conditions of hypoxia or increased afterload.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the early role of pulmonary and right-ventricular miR-223 and the IGF-IR in the right heart failure programme initiated by pulmonary hypoxia and increased mechanical load and may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies that target the development of PH and right heart failure.

Role of secreted modular calcium-binding protein 1 (SMOC1) in transforming growth factor β signalling and angiogenesis

AIMS

Secreted modular calcium-binding protein 1 (SMOC1) is a matricellular protein that potentially interferes with growth factor receptor signalling. The aim of this study was to determine how its expression is regulated in endothelial cells and its role in the regulation of endothelial cell function.

METHODS AND RESULTS

SMOC1 was expressed by native murine endothelial cells as well as by cultured human, porcine, and murine endothelial cells. SMOC1 expression in cultured cells was increased by hypoxia via the down-regulation of miR-223, and SMOC1 expression was increased in lungs from miR-223-deficient mice. Silencing SMOC1 (small interfering RNA) attenuated endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and sprouting in in vitro angiogenesis assays. Similarly endothelial cell sprouting from aortic rings ex vivo as well as postnatal retinal angiogenesis in vivo was attenuated in SMOC1(+/-) mice. In endothelial cells, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signalling via activin-like kinase (ALK) 5 leads to quiescence, whereas TGF-β signalling via ALK1 results in endothelial cell activation. SMOC1 acted as a negative regulator of ALK5/SMAD2 signalling, resulting in altered α2 integrin levels. Mechanistically, SMOC1 associated (immunohistochemistry, proximity ligation assay, and co-immunoprecipitation) with endoglin; an endothelium-specific type III auxiliary receptor for the TGF-β super family and the effects of SMOC1 down-regulation on SMAD2 phosphorylation were abolished by the down-regulation of endoglin.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that SMOC1 is an ALK5 antagonist produced by endothelial cells that tips TGF-β signalling towards ALK1 activation, thus promoting endothelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis.

Stratified control of IGF-I expression by hypoxia and stress hormones in osteoblasts

Bone cells respond to the integrated effects of local and systemic regulation. Here we show that hypoxia and the stress hormones PGE2 and glucocorticoid interact in complex ways in osteoblasts, converging on insulin like growth factor I (IGF-I) expression. Whereas hypoxia alone rapidly increased transcription factor HIF activity, it suppressed DNA synthesis, had no significant effects on protein synthesis or alkaline phosphatase activity, and drove discrete changes in a panel of osteoblast mRNAs. Notably, hypoxia increased expression of the acute phase response transcription factor C/EBPδ which can induce IGF-I in response to PGE2, but conversely prevented the stimulatory effect of PGE2 on IGF-I mRNA. However, unlike its effect on C/EBPδ, hypoxia suppressed expression of the obligate osteoblast transcription factor Runx2, which can activate an upstream response element in the IGF-I gene promoter. Hypoxic inhibition of IGF-I and Runx2 were enforced by glucocorticoid, and continued with prolonged exposure. Our studies thus reveal that IGF-I expression is stratified by two critical transcriptional elements in osteoblasts, which are resolved by the individual and combined effects of hypoxic stress and stress hormones. In so doing, hypoxia suppresses Runx2, limits the enhancing influence of PGE2, and interacts with glucocorticoid to reduce IGF-I expression by osteoblasts.

Long-term effects of ionizing radiation on gene expression in a zebrafish model

Understanding how initial radiation injury translates into long-term effects is an important problem in radiation biology. Here, we define a set of changes in the transcription profile that are associated with the long-term response to radiation exposure. The study was performed in vivo using zebrafish, an established radiobiological model organism. To study the long-term response, 24 hour post-fertilization embryos were exposed to 0.1 Gy (low dose) or 1.0 Gy (moderate dose) of whole-body gamma radiation and allowed to develop for 16 weeks. Liver mRNA profiles were then analyzed using the Affymetrix microarray platform, with validation by quantitative PCR. As a basis for comparison, 16-week old adults were exposed at the same doses and analyzed after 4 hours. Statistical analysis was performed in a way to minimize the effects of multiple comparisons. The responses to these two treatment regimes differed greatly: 360 probe sets were associated primarily with the long-term response, whereas a different 2062 probe sets were associated primarily with the response when adults of the same age were irradiated 4 hours before exposure. Surprisingly, a ten-fold difference in radiation dose (0.1 versus 1.0 Gy) had little effect. Analysis at the gene and pathway level indicated that the long-term response includes the induction of cytokine and inflammatory regulators and transcription and growth factors. The acute response includes the induction of p53 target genes and modulation of the hypoxia-induced transcription factor-C/EBP axis. Results help define genes and pathways affected in the long-term, low and moderate dose radiation response and differentiate them from those affected in an acute response in the same tissue.

Cell-Type Specific Determinants of NRAMP1 Expression in Professional Phagocytes

The Natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (Nramp1 or Solute carrier 11 member 1, Slc11a1) transports divalent metals across the membrane of late endosomes and lysosomes in professional phagocytes. Nramp1 represents an ancient eukaryotic cell-autonomous defense whereas the gene duplication that yielded Nramp1 and Nramp2 predated the origin of Sarcopterygians (lobe-finned fishes and tetrapods). SLC11A1 genetic polymorphisms associated with human resistance to tuberculosis consist of potential regulatory variants. Herein, current knowledge of the regulation of SLC11A1 gene expression is reviewed and comprehensive analysis of ENCODE data available for hematopoietic cell-types suggests a hypothesis for the regulation of SLC11A1 expression during myeloid development and phagocyte functional polarization. SLC11A1 is part of a 34.6 kb CTCF-insulated locus scattered with predicted regulatory elements: a 3' enhancer, a large 5' enhancer domain and four elements spread around the transcription start site (TSS), including several C/EBP and PU.1 sites. SLC11A1 locus ends appear mobilized by ETS-related factors early during myelopoiesis; activation of both 5' and 3' enhancers in myelo-monocytic cells correlate with transcription factor binding at the TSS. Characterizing the corresponding cis/trans determinants functionally will establish the mechanisms involved and possibly reveal genetic variation that impacts susceptibility to infectious or immune diseases.

Chloroquine enhances cobalt chloride-induced leukemic cell differentiation via the suppression of autophagy at the late phase

We previously reported that moderate hypoxia and hypoxia-mimetic agents including cobalt chloride (CoCl(2)) induce differentiation of human acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells through hypoxia-inducible factor-1 α (HIF-1 α), which interacts with and enhances transcriptional activity of CCAAT-enhancer binding factor alpha and Runx1/AML1, two important transcriptional factors for hematopoietic cell differentiation. Here, we show that autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ) increases HIF-1 α accumulation, thus potentiating CoCl(2)-induced growth arrest and differentiation of leukemic cells. Furthermore, the increased effect of CQ on differentiation induction is dependent of the inhibition of autophagosome maturation and degradation, since this sensitization could be mimicked by the suppression of expression of both lysosome-associated membrane proteins 1 and 2 (LAMP1 and LAMP2). These findings not only provide the evidence that CQ is a sensitizer for CoCl(2)-induced differentiation of leukemic cells but also possibly propose the new therapeutic strategy for differentiation induction of AML.

Expression and uptake of the thyroxine-binding protein transthyretin is regulated by oxygen in primary trophoblast placental cells

Transplacental delivery of maternal thyroid hormones to the fetus, in particular thyroxine (T₄), is critical in ensuring normal fetal neurological development. The fetus relies on maternal T₄ till around 16 weeks gestation, but mechanisms of placental T₄ transport are not yet fully elucidated. Placenta produces, secretes and takes up the thyroid hormone-binding protein transthyretin (TTR). Many placental genes are regulated by oxygen levels, which are relatively low (1%) in the early first trimester, rising to 3% in the mid first trimester and 8% in the early second trimester and thereafter. We examined the expression and uptake of TTR in isolated primary human placental cytotrophoblast cells cultured under different oxygen concentrations (1, 3, 8, 21% O₂ and 200 μM desferrioxamine (DFO)) for 24 h. We observed sevenfold higher expression of TTR mRNA and protein levels at 1% O₂ than at 8 and 21% O₂. Significant increases were observed after culture at 3% O₂ and following DFO treatment. We observed significantly higher uptake of ¹²⁵I-TTR and Alexa-594-TTR when cells were cultured at 1 and 3% O₂ and in the presence of 200 μM DFO than at 8 and 21% O₂. When JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells were transfected with TTR promoter reporter constructs, increased luciferase activity was measured in cells cultured at 1 and 3% O₂ in comparison to 8 and 21% O₂. We conclude that placental TTR expression and uptake is increased by the relative hypoxia observed in the first trimester of pregnancy, a time when materno-fetal T₄ transfer is the sole source of fetal T₄.

Molecular mechanisms regulating macrophage response to hypoxia

Monocytes and Macrophages (Mo/Mɸ) exhibit great plasticity, as they can shift between different modes of activation and, driven by their immediate microenvironment, perform divergent functions. These include, among others, patrolling their surroundings and maintaining homeostasis (resident Mo/Mɸ), combating invading pathogens and tumor cells (classically activated or M1 Mo/Mɸ), orchestrating wound healing (alternatively activated or M2 Mo/Mɸ), and restoring homeostasis after an inflammatory response (resolution Mɸ). Hypoxia is an important factor in the Mɸ microenvironment, is prevalent in many physiological and pathological conditions, and is interdependent with the inflammatory response. Although Mo/Mɸ have been studied in hypoxia, the mechanisms by which hypoxia influences the different modes of their activation, and how it regulates the shift between them, remain unclear. Here we review the current knowledge about the molecular mechanisms that mediate this hypoxic regulation of Mɸ activation. Much is known about the hypoxic transcriptional regulatory network, which includes the master regulators hypoxia-induced factor-1 and NF-κB, as well as other transcription factors (e.g., AP-1, Erg-1), but we also highlight the role of post-transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms. These mechanisms mediate hypoxic induction of Mɸ pro-angiogenic mediators, suppress M1 Mɸ by post-transcriptionally inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators, and help shift the classically activated Mɸ into an activation state which approximate the alternatively activated or resolution Mɸ.

Synergistic induction of galectin-1 by CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha and hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha and its role in differentiation of acute myeloid leukemic cells

Galectin-1 is a member of the galectin family and has a high affinity for galactose and N-acetylglucosamine moieties of glycoproteins. It mediates multiple signal transduction pathways to modulate cellular proliferation, survival, differentiation, and migration. However, the mechanisms for the regulation of its expression remain greatly elusive. We reported previously that galectin-1 is a direct target of the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), a key heterodimeric transcriptional factor for the cellular response to hypoxia. Here we show that CCAAT/enhancer binding protein α (C/EBPα), a critical transcriptional factor for hematopoietic cell differentiation, can directly activate galectin-1 through binding to the -48 to -42 bp region of its promoter. Based on the physical interaction of C/EBPα and HIF-1α, the synergistic transcriptional activity of C/EBPα and HIF-1α on the promoter of the galectin-1 gene is also found by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), ChIP followed by ChIP (ChIP-reChIP), and luciferase assay. Moreover, knockdown or chemical inhibition of galectin-1 partially blocks the differentiation induced by HIF-1α or C/EBPα, which can be rescued by recombinant galectin-1. These discoveries would shed new insights on the mechanisms for galectin-1 expression regulation and HIF-1α- and C/EBPα-induced leukemic cell differentiation.

Hypoxia-inducible factor regulates expression of surfactant protein in alveolar type II cells in vitro

Alveolar type II (ATII) cells cultured at an air-liquid (A/L) interface maintain differentiation, but they lose these properties when they are submerged. Others showed that an oxygen tension gradient develops in the culture medium as ATII cells consume oxygen. Therefore, we wondered whether hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) signaling could explain differences in the phenotypes of ATII cells cultured under A/L interface or submerged conditions. ATII cells were isolated from male Sprague-Dawley rats and cultured on inserts coated with a mixture of rat-tail collagen and Matrigel, in medium including 5% rat serum and 10 ng/ml keratinocyte growth factor, with their apical surfaces either exposed to air or submerged. The A/L interface condition maintained the expression of surfactant proteins, whereas that expression was down-regulated under the submerged condition, and the effect was rapid and reversible. Under submerged conditions, there was an increase in HIF1α and HIF2α in nuclear extracts, mRNA levels of HIF inducible genes, vascular endothelial growth factor, glucose transporter-1 (GLUT1), and the protein level of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isozyme-1. The expression of surfactant proteins was suppressed and GLUT1 mRNA levels were induced when cells were cultured with 1 mM dimethyloxalyl glycine. The expression of surfactant proteins was restored under submerged conditions with supplemented 60% oxygen. HIF signaling and oxygen tension at the surface of cells appears to be important in regulating the phenotype of rat ATII cells.

Hypoxia-induced microRNA-424 expression in human endothelial cells regulates HIF-α isoforms and promotes angiogenesis

Adaptive changes to oxygen availability are critical for cell survival and tissue homeostasis. Prolonged oxygen deprivation due to reduced blood flow to cardiac or peripheral tissues can lead to myocardial infarction and peripheral vascular disease, respectively. Mammalian cells respond to hypoxia by modulating oxygen-sensing transducers that stabilize the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), which transactivates genes governing angiogenesis and metabolic pathways. Oxygen-dependent changes in HIF-1α levels are regulated by proline hydroxylation and proteasomal degradation. Here we provide evidence for what we believe is a novel mechanism regulating HIF-1α levels in isolated human ECs during hypoxia. Hypoxia differentially increased microRNA-424 (miR-424) levels in ECs. miR-424 targeted cullin 2 (CUL2), a scaffolding protein critical to the assembly of the ubiquitin ligase system, thereby stabilizing HIF-α isoforms. Hypoxia-induced miR-424 was regulated by PU.1-dependent transactivation. PU.1 levels were increased in hypoxic endothelium by RUNX-1 and C/EBPα. Furthermore, miR-424 promoted angiogenesis in vitro and in mice, which was blocked by a specific morpholino. The rodent homolog of human miR-424, mu-miR-322, was significantly upregulated in parallel with HIF-1α in experimental models of ischemia. These results suggest that miR-322/424 plays an important physiological role in post-ischemic vascular remodeling and angiogenesis.

Dose-dependent modulation of HIF-1alpha/sima controls the rate of cell migration and invasion in Drosophila ovary border cells

The role of the hypoxic response during metastasis was analysed in migrating border cells of the Drosophila ovary. Acute exposure to 1% O(2) delayed or blocked border cell migration (BCM), whereas prolonged exposure resulted in the first documented accelerated BCM phenotype. Similarly, manipulating the expression levels of sima, the Drosophila hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha ortholog, revealed that Sima can either block or restore BCM in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, over-expression of Vhl (Drosophila von Hippel-Lindau) generated a range of phenotypes, including blocked, delayed and accelerated BCM, whereas over-expression of hph (Drosophila HIF prolyl hydroxylase) only accelerated BCM. Mosaic clone analysis of sima or tango (HIF-1beta ortholog) mutants revealed that cells lacking Hif-1 transcriptional activity were preferentially detected in the leading cell position of the cluster, resulting in either a delay or acceleration of BCM. Moreover, in sima mutant cell clones, there was reduced expression of nuclear slow border cells (Slbo) and basolateral DE-cadherin, proteins essential for proper BCM. These results show that Sima levels define the rate of BCM in part through regulation of Slbo and DE-cadherin, and suggest that dynamic regulation of Hif-1 activity is necessary to maintain invasive potential of migrating epithelial cells.