1
|
Demeshko A, Clifford Astbury C, Lee KM, Clarke J, Cullerton K, Penney TL. The role of corruption in global food systems: a systematic scoping review. Global Health 2024; 20:48. [PMID: 38877483 PMCID: PMC11179269 DOI: 10.1186/s12992-024-01054-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Corruption exists at all levels of our global society and is a potential threat to food security, food safety, equity, and social justice. However, there is a knowledge gap in the role and impact of corruption within the context of the global food system. We aimed to systematically review empirical literature focused on corruption in the global food system to examine how it is characterized, the actors involved, its potential impacts, and the solutions that have been proposed to address corruption in the food system. METHODS We used a systematic scoping review methodology. Terms combining corruption and the food system were searched in Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, PsycInfo and Econlit, in October 2021. Two screeners applied a priori selection criteria to screen the articles at the title and abstract and full-text levels. Data was extracted into a charting form and thematically synthesized to describe the types of corruption in the food system, the actors involved, how corruption impacts the food system, and potential solutions. Sankey diagrams and narrative summaries were developed to summarize the included studies and findings. RESULTS From the 238 included records, five main types of corruption were identified in the global food system: bureaucratic corruption, fraud, bribery, organized crime, and corporate political activity. These different types of corruption spanned across various food system areas, from policy and governance structures to food environments, and involved a wide range of actors. More powerful actors like those in public and private sectors tended to instigate corruption in the food system, while community members and primary producers tended to be impacted by it. The impacts of corruption were mostly negative and corruption was found to undermine food system governance and regulatory structures; threaten health, safety, and food security; and lead or contribute to environmental degradation, economic loss, erosion of trust, social inequities, and decreased agricultural productivity. While solution-oriented literature was limited, the essential role of strong governance, use of technology and predictive modelling methods to improve detection of corruption, and organizational approaches to problem solving were identified. CONCLUSION Our review findings provide researchers and policymakers with a comprehensive overview of corruption in the global food system, providing insights to inform a more holistic approach to addressing the issue. Addressing corruption in the food system is an essential element of supporting the transition to a more healthy, equitable and sustainable global food system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anastassia Demeshko
- Global Food Systems & Policy Research, School of Global Health, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Chloe Clifford Astbury
- Global Food Systems & Policy Research, School of Global Health, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dahdaleh Institute for Global Health Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Kirsten M Lee
- Global Food Systems & Policy Research, School of Global Health, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dahdaleh Institute for Global Health Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Janielle Clarke
- Global Food Systems & Policy Research, School of Global Health, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Tarra L Penney
- Global Food Systems & Policy Research, School of Global Health, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Dahdaleh Institute for Global Health Research, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Aqil A, Saldana K, Mian NU, Ndu M. Reliability and validity of an innovative high performing healthcare system assessment tool. BMC Health Serv Res 2023; 23:242. [PMID: 36915091 PMCID: PMC10009863 DOI: 10.1186/s12913-022-08852-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Universal Health coverage (UHC) is the mantra of the twenty-first century yet knowing when it has been achieved or how to best influence its progression remains elusive. An innovative framework for High Performing Healthcare (HPHC) attempts to address these issues. It focuses on measuring four constructs of Accountable, Affordable, Accessible, and Reliable (AAAR) healthcare that contribute to better health outcomes and impact. The HPHC tool collects information on the perceived functionality of health system processes and provides real-time data analysis on the AAAR constructs, and on processes for health system resilience, responsiveness, and quality, that include roles of community, private sector, as well as both demand, and supply factors affecting health system performance. The tool attempts to capture the multidimensionality of UHC measurement and evidence that links health system strengthening activities to outcomes. This paper provides evidence on the reliability and validity of the tool. METHODS Internet survey with non-probability sampling was used for testing reliability and validity of the HPHC tool. The volunteers were recruited using international networks and listservs. Two hundred and thirteen people from public, private, civil society and international organizations volunteered from 35 low-and-middle-income countries. Analyses involved testing reliability and validity and validation from other international sources of information as well as applicability in different setting and contexts. RESULTS The HPHC tool's AAAR constructs, and their sub-domains showed high internal consistency (Cronbach alpha >.80) and construct validity. The tool scores normal distribution displayed variations among respondents. In addition, the tool demonstrated its precision and relevance in different contexts/countries. The triangulation of HPHC findings with other international data sources further confirmed the tool's validity. CONCLUSIONS Besides being reliable and valid, the HPHC tool adds value to the state of health system measurement by focusing on linkages between AAAR processes and health outcomes. It ensures that health system stakeholders take responsibility and are accountable for better system performance, and the community is empowered to participate in decision-making process. The HPHC tool collects and analyzes data in real time with minimum costs, supports monitoring, and promotes adaptive management, policy, and program development for better health outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anwer Aqil
- Credence Management Solution, LLC, GHTASC, Institutional contractor USAID, Senior HSS MEL Advisor, Office of Health System, USAID, Washington, D.C., USA.
| | - Kelly Saldana
- Systems Strengthening and Resilience, Abt Associates, Rockville, USA
| | | | - Mary Ndu
- Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chang Z, Rusu V, Kohler JC. The Global Fund: why anti-corruption, transparency and accountability matter. Global Health 2021; 17:108. [PMID: 34537059 PMCID: PMC8449911 DOI: 10.1186/s12992-021-00753-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The creation of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, also known as the Global Fund, was prompted by the lack of a timely and effective global response, and the need for financing to fight against three devastating diseases: HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. During the formation of the Global Fund, necessary anti-corruption, transparency, and accountability (ACTA) structures were not put in place to prevent fraud and corruption in its grants, which resulted in the misuse of funds by grant recipients and an eventual loss of donor confidence in 2011. The Global Fund has instituted various ACTA mechanisms to address this misuse of funding and the subsequent loss of donor confidence, and this paper seeks to understand these implementations and their impacts over the past decade, in an effort to probe ACTA more deeply. Results By restructuring the governing committees in 2011, and the Audit and Finance; Ethics and Governance; and Strategy Committees in 2016, the Global Fund has delineated committee mandates and strengthened the Board’s oversight of operations. Additionally, the Global Fund has adopted a rigorous risk management framework which it has worked into all aspects of its functioning. An Ethics and Integrity Framework was adopted in 2014 and an Ethics Office was established in 2016, resulting in increased conflict of interest disclosures and greater considerations of ethics within the organization. The Global Fund’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG) has effectively performed internal and external audits and investigations on fraud and corruption, highlighted potential risks for mitigation, and has implemented ACTA initiatives, such as the I Speak Out Now! campaign to encourage whistleblowing and educate on fraud and corruption. Conclusions From 2011 onwards, the Global Fund has developed a number of ACTA mechanisms which, in particular, resulted in reduced grant-related risks and procurement fraud as demonstrated by the decreased classification from high to moderate in 2017, and the reduction of investigations in 2018 respectively. However, it is crucial that the Global Fund continues to evaluate the effectiveness of these mechanisms; monitor for potential perverse impacts; and make necessary changes, when and where they are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Chang
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Violet Rusu
- WHO Collaborating Centre (WHO CC) for Governance, Accountability and Transparency in the Pharmaceutical Sector, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jillian C Kohler
- WHO Collaborating Centre (WHO CC) for Governance, Accountability and Transparency in the Pharmaceutical Sector, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. .,Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hutchinson E, Naher N, Roy P, McKee M, Mayhew SH, Ahmed SM, Balabanova D. Targeting anticorruption interventions at the front line: developmental governance in health systems. BMJ Glob Health 2021; 5:bmjgh-2020-003092. [PMID: 33272939 PMCID: PMC7716661 DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2008, Vian reported an increasing interest in understanding how corruption affects healthcare outcomes and asked what could be done to combat corruption in the health sector. Eleven years later, corruption is seen as a heterogeneous mix of activity, extensive and expensive in terms of loss of productivity, increasing inequity and costs, but with few examples of programmes that have successfully tackled corruption in low-income or middle-income countries. The commitment, by multilateral organisations and many governments to the Sustainable Development Goals and Universal Health Coverage has renewed an interest to find ways to tackle corruption within health systems. These efforts must, however, begin with a critical assessment of the existing theoretical models and approaches that have underpinned action in the health sector in the past and an assessment of the potential of innovations from anticorruption work developed in sectors other than health. To that end, this paper maps the key debates and theoretical frameworks that have dominated research on corruption in health. It examines their limitations, the blind spots that they create in terms of the questions asked, and the capacity for research to take account of contextual factors that drive practice. It draws on new work from heterodox economics which seeks to target anticorruption interventions at practices that have high impact and which are politically and economically feasible to address. We consider how such approaches can be adopted into health systems and what new questions need to be addressed by researchers to support the development of sustainable solutions to corruption. We present a short case study from Bangladesh to show how such an approach reveals new perspectives on actors and drivers of corruption practice. We conclude by considering the most important areas for research and policy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Hutchinson
- Department of Global Health and Development, Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Nahitun Naher
- Centre of Excellence for Universal Health Coverage at Centre for Equity and Health Systems, James P. Grant School of Public Health, Brac University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Pallavi Roy
- Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy, Department of Politics and International Studies, SOAS University of London, London, UK
| | - Martin McKee
- Department of Health Services Research and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London, UK
| | - Susannah H Mayhew
- Department of Global Health and Development, Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Syed Masud Ahmed
- Centre of Excellence for Universal Health Coverage at Centre for Equity and Health Systems, James P. Grant School of Public Health, Brac University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Dina Balabanova
- Department of Global Health and Development, Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shahabi S, Skempes D, Shabaninejad H, Ahmadi Teymourlouy A, Behzadifar M, Bagheri Lankarani K. Corruption in the physiotherapy sector in Iran: common drivers and potential combating strategies. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOTHERAPY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/21679169.2020.1849397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Shahabi
- Health Policy Research Center, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Dimitrios Skempes
- Disability Policy and Implementation Research Group, Human Functioning Unit, Swiss Paraplegic Research (SPF), Nottwil, Switzerland
| | - Hosein Shabaninejad
- Institute of Health and Society (IHS), Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Ahmad Ahmadi Teymourlouy
- Department of Health Services Management, School of Health Management and Information Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoud Behzadifar
- Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Kamran Bagheri Lankarani
- Health Policy Research Center, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Corruption is embedded in health systems. Throughout my life-as a researcher, public health worker, and a Minister of Health-I have been able to see entrenched dishonesty and fraud. But despite being one of the most important barriers to implementing universal health coverage around the world, corruption is rarely openly discussed. In this Lecture, I outline the magnitude of the problem of corruption, how it started, and what is happening now. I also outline people's fears around the topic, what is needed to address corruption, and the responsibilities of the academic and research communities in all countries, irrespective of their level of economic development. Policy makers, researchers, and funders need to think about corruption as an important area of research in the same way we think about diseases. If we are really aiming to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and ensure healthy lives for all, corruption in global health must no longer be an open secret.
Collapse
|
7
|
Mackey TK. Opening the Policy Window to Mobilize Action Against Corruption in the Health Sector Comment on "We Need to Talk About Corruption in Health Systems". Int J Health Policy Manag 2019; 8:668-671. [PMID: 31779293 PMCID: PMC6885852 DOI: 10.15171/ijhpm.2019.65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Corruption in the health sector has been a "dirty secret" in the health policy and international development community, but recent global activities point to a day when it will no longer be neglected as a key determinant of health. To further explore next steps forward, this commentary applies the Kingdon's multiple-streams framework (MSF) to assess what opportunities are available to mobilize the global agenda to combat health corruption. Based on this analysis, it appears that Kingdon's problem, policy, and political streams are coalescing to create a policy window opportunity that can be leveraged based on recent developments in the global health and international development community around corruption. This includes the recent formation of the Global Network on Anti-Corruption, Transparency and Accountability (GNACTA) led by the World Health Organization (WHO), the Global Fund, and the United Nations Development Programme in 2019. It also includes bridging shared goals of addressing corruption in order to make progress towards health-specific goals in the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and for achieving universal health coverage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim K Mackey
- Global Health Policy Institute, San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology and Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Grover D, Bauhoff S, Friedman J. Using supervised learning to select audit targets in performance-based financing in health: An example from Zambia. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211262. [PMID: 30695057 PMCID: PMC6350980 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Independent verification is a critical component of performance-based financing (PBF) in health care, in which facilities are offered incentives to increase the volume of specific services but the same incentives may lead them to over-report. We examine alternative strategies for targeted sampling of health clinics for independent verification. Specifically, we empirically compare several methods of random sampling and predictive modeling on data from a Zambian PBF pilot that contains reported and verified performance for quantity indicators of 140 clinics. Our results indicate that machine learning methods, particularly Random Forest, outperform other approaches and can increase the cost-effectiveness of verification activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dhruv Grover
- Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Bauhoff
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jed Friedman
- Development Research Group, World Bank, Washington, DC, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kohler JC, Chang Pico T, Vian T, Mackey TK. The Global Wicked Problem of Corruption and Its Risks for Access to HIV/AIDS Medicines. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2018; 104:1054-1056. [PMID: 30076604 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.1172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We discuss how corruption affects access to antiretroviral therapies (ARVs) globally. Recent cases of theft of ARVs, collusion, and manipulation in procurement found in countries such as Central African Republic, Bangladesh, Malawi, and Guinea, show there is still much work to be done to reduce the risk of corruption. This includes addressing the structural weaknesses in procurement mechanisms and supply chain management systems of health commodities and medicines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jillian Clare Kohler
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, Munk School of Global Affairs and Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Governance, Accountability and Transparency in the Pharmaceutical System, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Tomas Chang Pico
- Humanist Institute for Co-operation With Developing Countries (HIVOS), Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Taryn Vian
- Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tim K Mackey
- Department of Anesthesiology, San Diego School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, San Diego School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California, USA.,Global Health Policy Institute, San Diego, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Almost all new treatments being developed for the next influenza pandemic target the virus. During the Ebola crisis in West Africa, patients were treated with an inexpensive generic statin/angiotensin receptor blocker combination that appeared to greatly improve survival. These drugs target the host response, not the virus, and probably reverse endothelial dysfunction. Scientists and health officials have shown little interest in this idea. Yet, during the early months of the next pandemic, vaccines will be unavailable and treatment options will be limited. Physicians should be prepared to undertake clinical trials of widely available generic drugs to determine whether they improve survival in patients with seasonal influenza, other emerging virus diseases, and other forms of acute critical illness. Public health officials should give these studies their strong support. If successful, they will suggest a 'bottom up' approach to patient care that could be implemented worldwide on the first pandemic day.
Collapse
|
11
|
Mackey TK, Vian T, Kohler J. The sustainable development goals as a framework to combat health-sector corruption. Bull World Health Organ 2018; 96:634-643. [PMID: 30262945 PMCID: PMC6154071 DOI: 10.2471/blt.18.209502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Corruption is diverse in its forms and embedded in health systems worldwide. Health-sector corruption directly impedes progress towards universal health coverage by inhibiting people’s access to quality health services and to safe and effective medicines, and undermining systems for financial risk protection. Corruption is also a cross-cutting theme in the United Nations’ sustainable development goals (SDGs) which aim to improve population health, promote justice and strong institutions and advance sustainable human development. To address health-sector corruption, we need to identify how it happens, collect evidence on its impact and develop frameworks to assess the potential risks and put in place protective measures. We propose that the SDGs can be leveraged to develop a new approach to anti-corruption governance in the health sector. The aim will be to address coordination across the jurisdictions of different countries and foster partnerships among stakeholders to adopt coherent policies and anti-corruption best practices at all levels. Combating corruption requires a focused and invigorated political will, better advocacy and stronger institutions. There is no single solution to the problem. Nevertheless, a commitment to controlling corruption via the SDGs will better ensure the integrity of global health and human development now and beyond 2030.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim K Mackey
- Department of Anesthesiology and Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, United States of America (USA)
| | - Taryn Vian
- Department of Global Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, USA
| | - Jillian Kohler
- Leslie Dan School of Pharmacy, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, and Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sommersguter-Reichmann M, Wild C, Stepan A, Reichmann G, Fried A. Individual and Institutional Corruption in European and US Healthcare: Overview and Link of Various Corruption Typologies. APPLIED HEALTH ECONOMICS AND HEALTH POLICY 2018; 16:289-302. [PMID: 29572725 PMCID: PMC5940713 DOI: 10.1007/s40258-018-0386-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the fight against healthcare corruption has intensified. Estimates from the European Healthcare Fraud and Corruption Network calculate an approximate €56 billion annual loss to Europe as a result of corruption. To promote understanding of the complexity and interconnection of corrupt activities, we aim to present healthcare-related corruption typologies of the European Union and European Healthcare Fraud and Corruption Network. We subsequently link them to the typology of individual and institutional corruption introduced by Dennis Thompson in the context of investigating misconduct of US Congressional members. According to Thompson, individual corruption is the personal gain of individuals performing duties within an institution in exchange for nurturing private interests, while institutional corruption pertains to the failure of the institution in directing the individual's behaviour towards the achievement of the institution's primary purpose because the institutional design promotes the pursuit of individual goals. Effective anti-corruption activities not only require the enactment of anti-corruption laws but also the monitoring and, where appropriate, revision of institutional frameworks to prevent the undermining of the primary purposes of health systems or institutions. To gain further understanding of the similarities and differences of the three typologies, prime examples of corrupt activities in the health sector in the European Union and USA (along with their potential remedies) are provided. Linking corruption cases to Thompson's typology revealed that many corrupt activities may show elements of both individual and institutional corruption because they are intertwined, partly overlap and may occur jointly. Hence, sanctioning individual actors only does not target the problem.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia Wild
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Health Technology Assessment, Vienna, Austria
| | - Adolf Stepan
- Institute of Management Science, Technical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Reichmann
- Department of Information Science and Information Systems, Karl-Franzens University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Andrea Fried
- Transparency International-Austrian Chapter, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|